±´¿Çµç×ÓÊé > Ó¢ÎÄÔ­Öøµç×ÓÊé > a smaller history of greece >

µÚ66ÕÂ

a smaller history of greece-µÚ66ÕÂ

С˵£º a smaller history of greece ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



eat¡¡influence¡¡in¡¡that¡¡country¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡commanded¡¡an¡¡Athenian¡¡squadron¡¡of¡¡seven¡¡ships¡¡at¡¡Thasos£»¡¡in¡¡424¡¡B¡£C¡££»¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡when¡¡Brasidas¡¡was¡¡besieging¡¡Amphipolis£»¡¡and¡¡having¡¡failed¡¡to¡¡relieve¡¡that¡¡city¡¡in¡¡time£»¡¡he¡¡went¡¡into¡¡a¡¡voluntary¡¡exile£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡probably¡¡to¡¡avoid¡¡the¡¡punishment¡¡of¡¡death¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡appears¡¡to¡¡have¡¡spent¡¡20¡¡years¡¡in¡¡banishment£»¡¡principally¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Peloponnesus£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡places¡¡under¡¡the¡¡dominion¡¡or¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡Sparta¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡perhaps¡¡returned¡¡to¡¡Athens¡¡in¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡403£»¡¡the¡¡date¡¡of¡¡its¡¡liberation¡¡by¡¡Thrasybulus¡£¡¡¡¡According¡¡to¡¡the¡¡unanimous¡¡testimony¡¡of¡¡antiquity¡¡he¡¡met¡¡with¡¡a¡¡violent¡¡end£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡probable¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡assassinated¡¡at¡¡Athens£»¡¡since¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡doubted¡¡that¡¡his¡¡tomb¡¡existed¡¡there¡£¡¡¡¡From¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Peloponnesian¡¡war¡¡he¡¡had¡¡designed¡¡to¡¡write¡¡its¡¡history£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡employed¡¡himself¡¡in¡¡collecting¡¡materials¡¡for¡¡that¡¡purpose¡¡during¡¡its¡¡continuance£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡is¡¡most¡¡likely¡¡that¡¡the¡¡work¡¡was¡¡not¡¡actually¡¡composed¡¡till¡¡after¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡war£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡engaged¡¡upon¡¡it¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡his¡¡death¡£¡¡The¡¡first¡¡book¡¡of¡¡his¡¡History¡¡is¡¡introductory£»¡¡and¡¡contains¡¡a¡¡rapid¡¡sketch¡¡of¡¡Grecian¡¡history¡¡from¡¡the¡¡remotest¡¡times¡¡to¡¡the¡¡breaking¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡war¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡remaining¡¡seven¡¡books¡¡are¡¡filled¡¡with¡¡the¡¡details¡¡of¡¡the¡¡war£»¡¡related¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡division¡¡into¡¡summers¡¡and¡¡winters£»¡¡into¡¡which¡¡all¡¡campaigns¡¡naturally¡¡fall£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡work¡¡breaks¡¡off¡¡abruptly¡¡in¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡of¡¡the¡¡21st¡¡year¡¡of¡¡the¡¡war¡¡£¨B¡£C¡£¡¡411£©¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡materials¡¡of¡¡Thucydides¡¡were¡¡collected¡¡with¡¡the¡¡most¡¡scrupulous¡¡care£»¡¡the¡¡events¡¡are¡¡related¡¡with¡¡the¡¡strictest¡¡impartiality£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡work¡¡probably¡¡offers¡¡a¡¡more¡¡exact¡¡account¡¡of¡¡a¡¡long¡¡and¡¡eventful¡¡period¡¡than¡¡any¡¡other¡¡contemporary¡¡history£»¡¡whether¡¡ancient¡¡or¡¡modern£»¡¡of¡¡an¡¡equally¡¡long¡¡and¡¡important¡¡aera¡£¡¡The¡¡style¡¡of¡¡Thucydides¡¡is¡¡brief¡¡and¡¡sententious£»¡¡and¡¡whether¡¡in¡¡moral¡¡or¡¡political¡¡reasoning£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡description£»¡¡gains¡¡wonderful¡¡force¡¡from¡¡its¡¡condensation¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡this¡¡characteristic¡¡is¡¡sometimes¡¡carried¡¡to¡¡a¡¡faulty¡¡extent£»¡¡so¡¡as¡¡to¡¡render¡¡his¡¡style¡¡harsh£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡meaning¡¡obscure¡£

XENOPHON£»¡¡the¡¡son¡¡of¡¡Gryllus£»¡¡was¡¡also¡¡an¡¡Athenian£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡probably¡¡born¡¡about¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡444¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡was¡¡a¡¡pupil¡¡of¡¡Socrates£»¡¡who¡¡saved¡¡his¡¡life¡¡at¡¡the¡¡battle¡¡of¡¡Delium¡¡£¨B¡£C¡£¡¡424£©¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡accompanying¡¡Cyrus¡¡the¡¡younger¡¡in¡¡his¡¡expedition¡¡against¡¡his¡¡brother¡¡Artaxerxes£»¡¡king¡¡of¡¡Persia£»¡¡formed¡¡a¡¡striking¡¡episode¡¡in¡¡his¡¡life£»¡¡and¡¡has¡¡been¡¡recorded¡¡by¡¡himself¡¡in¡¡his¡¡ANABASIS¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡still¡¡in¡¡Asia¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡death¡¡of¡¡Socrates¡¡in¡¡399¡¡B¡£C¡££»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡probably¡¡banished¡¡from¡¡Athens¡¡soon¡¡after¡¡that¡¡period£»¡¡in¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡his¡¡close¡¡connexion¡¡with¡¡the¡¡Lacedaemonians¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡accompanied¡¡Agesilaus£»¡¡the¡¡Spartan¡¡king£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡return¡¡of¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡from¡¡Asia¡¡to¡¡Greece£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡fought¡¡along¡¡with¡¡the¡¡Lacedaemonians¡¡against¡¡his¡¡own¡¡countrymen¡¡at¡¡the¡¡battle¡¡of¡¡Coronea¡¡in¡¡394¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡¡¡After¡¡this¡¡battle¡¡he¡¡went¡¡with¡¡Agesilaus¡¡to¡¡Sparta£»¡¡and¡¡soon¡¡afterwards¡¡settled¡¡at¡¡Scillus¡¡in¡¡Elis£»¡¡near¡¡Olympia¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡have¡¡lived¡¡to¡¡more¡¡than¡¡90¡¡years¡¡of¡¡age£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡mentions¡¡an¡¡event¡¡which¡¡occurred¡¡as¡¡late¡¡as¡¡357¡¡B¡£C¡£

Probably¡¡all¡¡the¡¡works¡¡of¡¡Xenophon¡¡are¡¡still¡¡extant¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡ANABASIS¡¡is¡¡the¡¡work¡¡on¡¡which¡¡his¡¡fame¡¡as¡¡an¡¡historian¡¡chiefly¡¡rests¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡written¡¡in¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡and¡¡agreeable¡¡style£»¡¡and¡¡conveys¡¡much¡¡curious¡¡and¡¡striking¡¡information¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡HELLENICA¡¡is¡¡a¡¡continuation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡Thucydides£»¡¡and¡¡comprehends¡¡in¡¡seven¡¡books¡¡a¡¡space¡¡of¡¡about¡¡48¡¡years£»¡¡namely£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡time¡¡when¡¡Thucydides¡¡breaks¡¡off£»¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡411£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡battle¡¡of¡¡Mantinea¡¡in¡¡362¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡subject¡¡is¡¡treated¡¡in¡¡a¡¡very¡¡dry¡¡and¡¡uninteresting¡¡style£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡evident¡¡partiality¡¡to¡¡Sparta£»¡¡and¡¡dislike¡¡of¡¡Athens£»¡¡have¡¡frequently¡¡warped¡¡his¡¡judgment£»¡¡and¡¡must¡¡cause¡¡his¡¡statements¡¡to¡¡be¡¡received¡¡with¡¡some¡¡suspicion¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡CYROPAEDIA£»¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡pleasing¡¡and¡¡popular¡¡of¡¡his¡¡works£»¡¡professes¡¡to¡¡be¡¡a¡¡history¡¡of¡¡Cyrus£»¡¡the¡¡founder¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Persian¡¡monarchy£»¡¡but¡¡is¡¡in¡¡reality¡¡a¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡political¡¡romance£»¡¡and¡¡possesses¡¡no¡¡authority¡¡whatever¡¡as¡¡an¡¡historical¡¡work¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡design¡¡of¡¡the¡¡author¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡to¡¡draw¡¡a¡¡picture¡¡of¡¡a¡¡perfect¡¡state£»¡¡and¡¡though¡¡the¡¡scene¡¡is¡¡laid¡¡in¡¡Persia£»¡¡the¡¡materials¡¡of¡¡the¡¡work¡¡are¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡his¡¡own¡¡philosophical¡¡notions¡¡and¡¡the¡¡usages¡¡of¡¡Sparta¡¡engrafted¡¡on¡¡the¡¡popularly¡¡current¡¡stories¡¡respecting¡¡Cyrus¡£¡¡¡¡Xenophon¡¡displays¡¡in¡¡this¡¡work¡¡his¡¡dislike¡¡of¡¡democratic¡¡institutions¡¡like¡¡those¡¡of¡¡Athens£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡preference¡¡for¡¡an¡¡aristocracy£»¡¡or¡¡even¡¡a¡¡monarchy¡£¡¡¡¡Xenophon¡¡was¡¡also¡¡the¡¡author¡¡of¡¡several¡¡minor¡¡works£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡only¡¡other¡¡treatise¡¡which¡¡we¡¡need¡¡mention¡¡is¡¡the¡¡MEMORABILIA¡¡of¡¡Socrates£»¡¡in¡¡four¡¡books£»¡¡intended¡¡as¡¡a¡¡defence¡¡of¡¡his¡¡master¡¡against¡¡the¡¡charges¡¡which¡¡occasioned¡¡his¡¡death£»¡¡and¡¡which¡¡undoubtedly¡¡contains¡¡a¡¡genuine¡¡picture¡¡of¡¡Socrates¡¡and¡¡his¡¡philosophy¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡genius¡¡of¡¡Xenophon¡¡was¡¡not¡¡of¡¡the¡¡highest¡¡order£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡practical¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡speculative£»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡is¡¡distinguished¡¡for¡¡his¡¡good¡¡sense£»¡¡his¡¡moderate¡¡views£»¡¡his¡¡humane¡¡temper£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡earnest¡¡piety¡£

The¡¡DRAMA¡¡pre¡­eminently¡¡distinguished¡¡Athenian¡¡literature¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡democracy¡¡demanded¡¡a¡¡literature¡¡of¡¡a¡¡popular¡¡kind£»¡¡the¡¡vivacity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people¡¡a¡¡literature¡¡that¡¡made¡¡a¡¡lively¡¡impression£»¡¡and¡¡both¡¡these¡¡conditions¡¡were¡¡fulfilled¡¡by¡¡the¡¡drama¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡though¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡perfection¡¡among¡¡the¡¡Athenians£»¡¡tragedy¡¡and¡¡comedy£»¡¡in¡¡their¡¡rude¡¡and¡¡early¡¡origin£»¡¡were¡¡Dorian¡¡inventions¡£¡¡¡¡Both¡¡arose¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡worship¡¡of¡¡Dionysus¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡was¡¡at¡¡first¡¡but¡¡little¡¡distinction¡¡between¡¡these¡¡two¡¡species¡¡of¡¡the¡¡drama£»¡¡except¡¡that¡¡comedy¡¡belonged¡¡more¡¡to¡¡the¡¡rural¡¡celebration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Dionysiac¡¡festivals£»¡¡and¡¡tragedy¡¡to¡¡that¡¡in¡¡cities¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡name¡¡of¡¡TRAGEDY¡¡was¡¡far¡¡from¡¡signifying¡¡any¡¡thing¡¡mournful£»¡¡being¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡the¡¡goat¡­like¡¡appearance¡¡of¡¡those¡¡who£»¡¡disguised¡¡as¡¡Satyrs£»¡¡performed¡¡the¡¡old¡¡Dionysiac¡¡songs¡¡and¡¡dances¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡like¡¡manner£»¡¡COMEDY¡¡was¡¡called¡¡after¡¡the¡¡song¡¡of¡¡the¡¡band¡¡of¡¡revellers¡¡who¡¡celebrated¡¡the¡¡vintage¡¡festivals¡¡of¡¡Dionysus£»¡¡and¡¡vented¡¡the¡¡rude¡¡merriment¡¡inspired¡¡by¡¡the¡¡occasion¡¡in¡¡jibes¡¡and¡¡extempore¡¡witticisms¡¡levelled¡¡at¡¡the¡¡spectators¡£¡¡¡¡Tragedy£»¡¡in¡¡its¡¡more¡¡perfect¡¡form£»¡¡was¡¡the¡¡offspring¡¡of¡¡the¡¡dithyrambic¡¡odes¡¡with¡¡which¡¡that¡¡worship¡¡was¡¡celebrated¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡were¡¡not¡¡always¡¡of¡¡a¡¡joyous¡¡cast¡£¡¡¡¡Some¡¡of¡¡them¡¡expressed¡¡the¡¡sufferings¡¡of¡¡Dionysus£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡was¡¡from¡¡this¡¡more¡¡mournful¡¡species¡¡of¡¡dithyramb¡¡that¡¡tragedy£»¡¡properly¡¡so¡¡called£»¡¡arose¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡dithyrambic¡¡odes¡¡formed¡¡a¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡lyrical¡¡tragedy£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡sung¡¡by¡¡a¡¡chorus¡¡of¡¡fifty¡¡men£»¡¡dancing¡¡round¡¡the¡¡altar¡¡of¡¡Dionysus¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡improvements¡¡in¡¡the¡¡dithyramb¡¡were¡¡introduced¡¡by¡¡Arion¡¡at¡¡Corinth£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡was¡¡chiefly¡¡among¡¡the¡¡Dorian¡¡states¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Peloponnesus¡¡that¡¡these¡¡choral¡¡dithyrambic¡¡songs¡¡prevailed¡£¡¡¡¡Hence£»¡¡even¡¡in¡¡attic¡¡tragedy£»¡¡the¡¡chorus£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡the¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡drama£»¡¡was¡¡written¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Doric¡¡dialect£»¡¡thus¡¡clearly¡¡betraying¡¡the¡¡source¡¡from¡¡which¡¡the¡¡Athenians¡¡derived¡¡it¡£

In¡¡Attica¡¡an¡¡important¡¡alteration¡¡was¡¡made¡¡in¡¡the¡¡old¡¡tragedy¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Pisistratus£»¡¡in¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡which¡¡it¡¡obtained¡¡a¡¡new¡¡and¡¡dramatic¡¡character¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡innovation¡¡is¡¡ascribed¡¡to¡¡THESPIS£»¡¡a¡¡native¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Attic¡¡village¡¡of¡¡Icaria£»¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡535¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡consisted¡¡in¡¡the¡¡introduction¡¡of¡¡an¡¡actor¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡giving¡¡rest¡¡to¡¡the¡¡chorus¡£¡¡¡¡Thespis¡¡was¡¡succeeded¡¡by¡¡Choerilus¡¡and¡¡Phrynichus£»¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡of¡¡whom¡¡gained¡¡his¡¡first¡¡prize¡¡in¡¡the¡¡dramatic¡¡contests¡¡in¡¡511¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Dorian¡¡Pratinas£»¡¡a¡¡native¡¡of¡¡Philius£»¡¡but¡¡who¡¡exhibited¡¡his¡¡tragedies¡¡at¡¡Athens£»¡¡introduced¡¡an¡¡improvement¡¡in¡¡tragedy¡¡by¡¡separating¡¡the¡¡Satyric¡¡from¡¡the¡¡tragic¡¡drama¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡neither¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡taste¡¡nor¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡religious¡¡associations¡¡connected¡¡with¡¡the¡¡festivals¡¡of¡¡Dionysus¡¡would¡¡have¡¡permitted¡¡the¡¡chorus¡¡of¡¡Satyrs¡¡to¡¡be¡¡entirely¡¡banished¡¡from¡¡the¡¡tragic¡¡representations£»¡¡Pratinas¡¡avoided¡¡this¡¡by¡¡the¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡what¡¡is¡¡called¡¡the¡¡Satyric¡¡drama£»¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡a¡¡species¡¡of¡¡play¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡ordinary¡¡subjects¡¡of¡¡tragedy¡¡were¡¡treated¡¡in¡¡a¡¡lively¡¡and¡¡farcical¡¡manner£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡chorus¡¡consisted¡¡of¡¡a¡¡band¡¡of¡¡Satyrs¡¡in¡¡appropriate¡¡dresses¡¡and¡¡masks¡£¡¡¡¡After¡¡this¡¡period¡¡it¡¡became¡¡customary¡¡to¡¡exhibit¡¡dramas¡¡in¡¡TETRALOGIES£»¡¡or¡¡sets¡¡of¡¡four£»¡¡namely£»¡¡a¡¡tragic¡¡trilogy£»¡¡or¡¡series¡¡of¡¡three¡¡tragedies£»¡¡followed¡¡by¡¡a¡¡Satyric¡¡play¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡were¡¡often¡¡on¡¡connected¡¡subjects£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Satyric¡¡drama¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡served¡¡like¡¡a¡¡merry¡¡after¡­piece¡¡to¡¡relieve¡¡the¡¡minds¡¡of¡¡the¡¡spectators¡£

The¡¡subjects¡¡of¡¡Greek¡¡tragedy¡¡were¡¡taken£»¡¡with¡¡few¡¡

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ