shorter logic-第12章

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composite　contents　we　must　distinguish　the　part　that　properly　belongs　to　thought；　or　to　the
abstract　mode　of　its　action。　A　subtle　spiritual　bond；　consisting　in　the　agency　of　thought；　is　what
gives　unity　to　all　these　contents；　and　it　was　this　bond；　the　form　as　form；　that　Aristotle　noted　and
described。　Up　to　the　present　day；　the　logic　of　Aristotle　continues　to　be　the　received　system。　It　has
indeed　been　spun　out　to　greater　length；　especially　by　the　labours　of　the　medieval　Schoolmen　who；
without　making　any　material　additions；　merely　refined　in　details。　The　moderns　also　have　left　their
mark　upon　this　logic；　partly　by　omitting　many　points　of　logical　doctrine　due　to　Aristotle　and　the
Schoolmen；　and　partly　by　foisting　in　a　quantity　of　psychological　matter。　The　purport　of　the　science
is　to　become　acquainted　with　the　procedure　of　finite　thought：　and；　if　it　is　adapted　to　its
presupposed　object；　the　science　is　entitled　to　be　styled　correct。　The　study　of　this　formal　logic
undoubtedly　has　its　uses。　It　sharpens　the　wits；　as　the　phrase　goes；　and　teaches　us　to　collect　our
thoughts　and　to　abstract　…　whereas　in　common　consciousness　we　have　to　deal　with　sensuous
conceptions　which　cross　and　perplex　one　another。　Abstraction　moreover　implies　the　concentration
of　the　mind　on　a　single　point；　and　thus　induces　the　habit　of　attending　to　our　inward　selves。　An
acquaintance　with　the　forms　of　finite　thought　may　be　made　a　means　of　training　the　mind　for　the
empirical　sciences；　since　their　method　is　regulated　by　these　forms：　and　in　this　sense　logic　has　been
designated　Instrumental。　It　is　true；　we　may　be　still　more　liberal；　and　say：　Logic　is　to　be　studied　not
for　its　utility；　but　for　its　own　sake；　the　superexcellent　is　not　to　be　sought　for　the　sake　of　mere　utility。
In　one　sense　this　is　quite　correct；　but　it　may　be　replied　that　the　superexcellent　is　also　the　most
useful；　because　it　is　the　all…sustaining　principle　which；　having　a　subsistence　of　its　own；　may
therefore　serve　as　the　vehicle　of　special　ends　which　it　furthers　and　secures。　And　thus；　special　ends；
though　they　have　no　right　to　be　set　first；　are　still　fostered　by　the　presence　of　the　highest　good。
Religion；　for　instance；　has　an　absolute　value　of　its　own；　yet　at　the　same　time　other　ends　flourish　and
succeed　in　its　train。　As　Christ　says：　'Seek　ye　first　the　kingdom　of　God；　and　all　these　things　shall　be
added　unto　you。'　Particular　ends　can　be　attained　only　in　the　attainment　of　what　absolutely　is　and
exists　in　its　own　right。　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Thought　in　its　bearings　upon　objects
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　21

（b）　Thought　was　described　as　active。　We　now；　in　the　second　place；　consider　this
action　in　its　bearings　upon　objects；　or　as　reflection　upon　something。　In　this　case
the　universal　or　product　of　its　operation　contains　the　value　of　the　thing　…　is　the
essential；　inward；　and　true。

In　§　5　the　old　belief　was　quoted　that　the　reality　in　object；　circumstance；　or　event；
the　intrinsic　worth　or　essence；　the　thing　on　which　everything　depends；　is　not　a
self…evident　datum　of　consciousness；　or　coincident　with　the　first　appearance　and
impression　of　the　object；　that；　on　the　contrary；　Reflection　is　required　in　order　to
discover　the　real　constitution　of　the　object　…　and　that　by　such　reflection　it　will　be
ascertained。　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Universals　apprehended　in　Reflection
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　21n
To　reflect　is　a　lesson　which　even　the　child　has　to　learn。　One　of　his　first　lessons　is　to　join　adjectives
with　substantives。　This　obliges　him　to　attend　and　distinguish：　he　has　to　remember　a　rule　and　apply　it
to　the　particular　case。　This　rule　is　nothing　but　a　universal：　and　the　child　must　see　that　the　particular
adapts　itself　to　this　universal。　In　life；　again；　we　have　ends　to　attain。　And　with　regard　to　these　we
ponder　which　is　the　best　way　to　secure　them。　The　end　here　represents　the　universal　or　governing
principle　and　we　have　means　and　instruments　whose　action　we　regulate　in　conformity　to　the　end。
In　the　same　way　reflection　is　active　in　questions　of　conduct。　To　reflect　here　means　to　recollect　the
right；　the　duty　…　the　universal　which　serves　as　a　fixed　rule　to　guide　our　behaviour　in　the　given　case。
Our　particular　act　must　imply　and　recognise　the　universal　law。　We　find　the　same　thing　exhibited　in
our　study　of　natural　phenomena。　For　instance；　we　observe　thunder　and　lightning。　The　phenomenon
is　a　familiar　one；　and　we　often　perceive　it。　But　man　is　not　content　with　a　bare　acquaintance；　or　with
the　fact　as　it　appears　to　the　senses；　he　would　like　to　get　behind　the　surface；　to　know　what　it　is；　and
to　comprehend　it。　This　leads　him　to　reflect：　he　seeks　to　find　out　the　cause　as　something　distinct
from　the　mere　phenomenon：　he　tries　to　know　the　inside　in　its　distinction　from　the　outside。　Hence
the　phenomenon　becomes　double；　it　splits　into　inside　and　outside；　into　force　and　its　manifestation；
into　cause　and　effect。　Once　more　we　find　the　inside　or　the　force　identified　with　the　universal　and
permanent：　not　this　or　that　flash　of　lightning；　this　or　that　plant　…　but　that　which　continues　the　same　in
them　all。　The　sensible　appearance　is　individual　and　evanescent：　the　permanent　in　it　is　discovered　by
reflection。

Nature　shows　us　a　countless　number　of　individual　forms　and　phenomena。　Into　this　variety　we　feel
a　need　of　introducing　unity：　we　compare；　consequently；　and　try　to　find　the　universal　of　each　single
case。　Individuals　are　born　and　perish：　the　species　abides　and　recurs　in　them　all：　and　its　existence　is
only　visible　to　reflection。　Under　the　same　head　fall　such　laws　as　those　regulating　the　motion　of　the
heavenly　bodies。　To…day　we　see　the　stars　here；　and　tomorrow　there；　and　our　mind　finds　something
incongruous　in　this　chaos　…　something　in　which　it　can　put　no　faith；　because　it　believes　in　order　and
in　a　simple；　constant；　and　universal　law。　Inspired　by　this　belief；　the　mind　has　directed　its　reflection
towards　the　phenomena；　and　learnt　their　laws。　In　other　words；　it　has　established　the　movement　of
the　heavenly　bodies　to　be　in　accordance　with　a　universal　law　from　which　every　change　of　position
may　be　known　and　predicted。　The　case　is　the　same　with　the　influences　which　make　themselves　felt
in　the　infinite　complexity　of　human　conduct。　There；　too；　man　has　the　belief　in　the　sway　of　a　general
principle。　From　all　these　examples　it　may　be　gathered　how　reflection　is　always　seeking　for
something　fixed　and　permanent；　definite　in　itself　and　governing　the　particulars。　This　universal　which
cannot　be　apprehended　by　the　senses　counts　as　the　true　and　essential。　Thus；　duties　and　rights　are
all…important　in　the　matter　of　conduct；　and　an　action　is　true　when　it　conforms　to　those　universal
formulae。

In　thus　characterising　the　universal；　we　become　aware　of　its　antithesis　to　something　else。　This
something　else　is　the　merely　immediate；　outward　and　individual；　as　opposed　to　the　mediate；
inward；　and　universal。　The　universal　does　not　exist　externally　to　the　outward　eye　as　a　universal。
The　kind　as　kind　cannot　be　perceived：　the　laws　of　the　celestial　motions　are　not　written　on　the　sky。
The　universal　is　neither　seen　nor　heard；　its　existence　is　only　for　the　mind。　Religion　leads　us　to　a
universal；　which　embraces　all　else　within　itself；　to　an　Absolute　by　which　all　else　is　brought　into
being：　and　this　Absolute　is　an　object　not　of　the　senses　but　of　the　mind　and　of　thought。　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The　Subject　…　Object　Relation
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　22

（c）　By　the　act　of　reflection　something　is　altered　in　the　way　in　which　the　fact　was
originally　presented　in　sensation；　perception；　or　conception。　Thus；　as　it　appears；
an　alteration　must　be　interposed　before　the　true　nature　of　the　object　can　be
discovered。

What　reflection　elicits　is　a　product　of　our　thought。　Solon；　for　instance；　produced
out　of　his　head　the　laws　he　gave　to　the　Athenians。　This　is　half　of　the　truth：　but　we
must　not　on　that　account　forget　that　the　universal　（in　Solon's　case；　the　laws）　is　the
very　reverse　of　merely　subjective；　or　fail　to　note　that　it　is　the　essential；　true；　and
objective　being　of　things。　To　discover　the　truth　in　things；　mere　attention　is　not
enough；　we　must　call　in　the