a history of science-4-第48章
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； the leaders perhaps being Drs。 Behring and Kitasato； closely followed by Dr。 Roux and his associates of the Pasteur Institute of Paris。 Definite results were announced by Behring in 1892 regarding two important diseasestetanus and diphtheriabut the method did not come into general notice until 1894； when Dr。 Roux read an epoch…making paper on the subject at the Congress of Hygiene at Buda…Pesth。
In this paper Dr。 Roux； after adverting to the labors of Behring； Ehrlich； Boer； Kossel； and Wasserman； described in detail the methods that had been developed at the Pasteur Institute for the development of the curative serum； to which Behring had given the since…familiar name antitoxine。 The method consists； first； of the cultivation； for some months； of the diphtheria bacillus （called the Klebs…Loeffler bacillus； in honor of its discoverers） in an artificial bouillon； for the development of a powerful toxine capable of giving the disease in a virulent form。
This toxine； after certain details of mechanical treatment； is injected in small but increasing doses into the system of an animal； care being taken to graduate the amount so that the animal does not succumb to the disease。 After a certain course of this treatment it is found that a portion of blood serum of the animal so treated will act in a curative way if injected into the blood of another animal； or a human patient； suffering with diphtheria。 In other words； according to theory； an antitoxine has been developed in the system of the animal subjected to the progressive inoculations of the diphtheria toxine。 In Dr。 Roux's experience the animal best suited for the purpose is the horse； though almost any of the domesticated animals will serve the purpose。
But Dr。 Roux's paper did not stop with the description of laboratory methods。 It told also of the practical application of the serum to the treatment of numerous cases of diphtheria in the hospitals of Parisapplications that had met with a gratifying measure of success。 He made it clear that a means had been found of coping successfully with what had been one of the most virulent and intractable of the diseases of childhood。 Hence it was not strange that his paper made a sensation in all circles； medical and lay alike。
Physicians from all over the world flocked to Paris to learn the details of the open secret； and within a few months the new serum…therapy had an acknowledged standing with the medical profession everywhere。 What it had accomplished was regarded as but an earnest of what the new method might accomplish presently when applied to the other infectious diseases。
Efforts at such applications were immediately begun in numberless directionshad； indeed； been under way in many a laboratory for some years before。 It is too early yet to speak of the results in detail。 But enough has been done to show that this method also is susceptible of the widest generalization。 It is not easy at the present stage to sift that which is tentative from that which will be permanent； but so great an authority as Behring does not hesitate to affirm that today we possess； in addition to the diphtheria antitoxine； equally specific antitoxines of tetanus； cholera； typhus fever； pneumonia； and tuberculosisa set of diseases which in the aggregate account for a startling proportion of the general death…rate。 Then it is known that Dr。 Yersin； with the collaboration of his former colleagues of the Pasteur Institute； has developed； and has used with success； an antitoxine from the microbe of the plague which recently ravaged China。
Dr。 Calmette； another graduate of the Pasteur Institute； has extended the range of the serum…therapy to include the prevention and treatment of poisoning by venoms； and has developed an antitoxine that has already given immunity from the lethal effects of snake bites to thousands of persons in India and Australia。
Just how much of present promise is tentative； just what are the limits of the methodsthese are questions for the future to decide。 But； in any event； there seems little question that the serum treatment will stand as the culminating achievement in therapeutics of our century。 It is the logical outgrowth of those experimental studies with the microscope begun by our predecessors of the thirties； and it represents the present culmination of the rigidly experimental method which has brought medicine from a level of fanciful empiricism to the plane of a rational experimental science。
IX。 THE NEW SCIENCE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
BRAIN AND MIND
A little over a hundred years ago a reform movement was afoot in the world in the interests of the insane。 As was fitting； the movement showed itself first in America； where these unfortunates were humanely cared for at a time when their treatment elsewhere was worse than brutal； but England and France quickly fell into line。 The leader on this side of the water was the famous Philadelphian； Dr。 Benjamin Rush； 〃the Sydenham of America〃； in England； Dr。 William Tuke inaugurated the movement； and in France； Dr。 Philippe Pinel； single…handed； led the way。 Moved by a common spirit； though acting quite independently； these men raised a revolt against the traditional custom which； spurning the insane as demon…haunted outcasts； had condemned these unfortunates to dungeons； chains； and the lash。 Hitherto few people had thought it other than the natural course of events that the 〃maniac〃 should be thrust into a dungeon； and perhaps chained to the wall with the aid of an iron band riveted permanently about his neck or waist。 Many an unfortunate； thus manacled； was held to the narrow limits of his chain for years together in a cell to which full daylight never penetrated； sometimesiron being expensivethe chain was so short that the wretched victim could not rise to the upright posture or even shift his position upon his squalid pallet of straw。
In America； indeed； there being no Middle Age precedents to crystallize into established customs； the treatment accorded the insane had seldom or never sunk to this level。 Partly for this reason； perhaps； the work of Dr。 Rush at the Philadelphia Hospital； in 1784； by means of which the insane came to be humanely treated； even to the extent of banishing the lash； has been but little noted； while the work of the European leaders； though belonging to later decades； has been made famous。 And perhaps this is not as unjust as it seems； for the step which Rush took； from relatively bad to good； was a far easier one to take than the leap from atrocities to good treatment which the European reformers were obliged to compass。 In Paris； for example； Pinel was obliged to ask permission of the authorities even to make the attempt at liberating the insane from their chains； and； notwithstanding his recognized position as a leader of science； he gained but grudging assent； and was regarded as being himself little better than a lunatic for making so manifestly unwise and hopeless an attempt。 Once the attempt had been made； however； and carried to a successful issue； the amelioration wrought in the condition of the insane was so patent that the fame of Pinel's work at the Bicetre and the Salpetriere went abroad apace。 It required； indeed； many years to complete it in Paris； and a lifetime of effort on the part of Pinel's pupil Esquirol and others to extend the reform to the provinces； but the epochal turning…point had been reached with Pinel's labors of the closing years of the eighteenth century。
The significance of this wise and humane reform； in the present connection； is the fact that these studies of the insane gave emphasis to the novel idea； which by…and…by became accepted as beyond question； that 〃demoniacal possession〃 is in reality no more than the outward expression of a diseased condition of the brain。 This realization made it clear； as never before； how intimately the mind and the body are linked one to the other。 And so it chanced that； in striking the shackles from the insane； Pinel and his confreres struck a blow also； unwittingly； at time…honored philosophical traditions。 The liberation of the insane from their dungeons was an augury of the liberation of psychology from the musty recesses of metaphysics。 Hi
