a history of science-4-第43章
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t actuated Dr。 Long to this delay； but the caution cost him the credit； which might otherwise have been his； of giving to the world one of the greatest blessingsdare we not； perhaps； say the very greatest？that science has ever conferred upon humanity。
A few months after the use of ether became general； the Scotch surgeon Sir J。 Y。 Simpson＇6＇ discovered that another drug； chloroform； could be administered with similar effects； that it would； indeed； in many cases produce anaesthesia more advantageously even than ether。 From that day till this surgeons have been more or less divided in opinion as to the relative merits of the two drugs； but this fact； of course； has no bearing whatever upon the merit of the first discovery of the method of anaesthesia。 Even had some other drug subsequently quite banished ether； the honor of the discovery of the beneficent method of anaesthesia would have been in no wise invalidated。 And despite all cavillings； it is unequivocally established that the man who gave that method to the world was William T。 G。 Morton。
PASTEUR AND THE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
The discovery of the anaesthetic power of drugs was destined presently； in addition to its direct beneficences； to aid greatly in the progress of scientific medicine； by facilitating those experimental studies of animals from which； before the day of anaesthesia； many humane physicians were withheld； and which in recent years have led to discoveries of such inestimable value to humanity。 But for the moment this possibility was quite overshadowed by the direct benefits of anaesthesia； and the long strides that were taken in scientific medicine during the first fifteen years after Morton's discovery were mainly independent of such aid。 These steps were taken； indeed； in a field that at first glance might seem to have a very slight connection with medicine。 Moreover； the chief worker in the field was not himself a physician。 He was a chemist； and the work in which he was now engaged was the study of alcoholic fermentation in vinous liquors。 Yet these studies paved the way for the most important advances that medicine has made in any century towards the plane of true science； and to this man more than to any other single individualit might almost be said more than to all other individualswas due this wonderful advance。 It is almost superfluous to add that the name of this marvellous chemist was Louis Pasteur。
The studies of fermentation which Pasteur entered upon in 1854 were aimed at the solution of a controversy that had been waging in the scientific world with varying degrees of activity for a quarter of a century。 Back in the thirties； in the day of the early enthusiasm over the perfected microscope； there had arisen a new interest in the minute forms of life which Leeuwenhoek and some of the other early workers with the lens had first described； and which now were shown to be of almost universal prevalence。 These minute organisms had been studied more or less by a host of observers； but in particular by the Frenchman Cagniard Latour and the German of cell…theory fame； Theodor Schwann。 These men； working independently； had reached the conclusion； about 1837； that the micro…organisms play a vastly more important role in the economy of nature than any one previously had supposed。 They held； for example； that the minute specks which largely make up the substance of yeast are living vegetable organisms； and that the growth of these organisms is the cause of the important and familiar process of fermentation。 They even came to hold； at least tentatively； the opinion that the somewhat similar micro…organisms to be found in all putrefying matter； animal or vegetable； had a causal relation to the process of putrefaction。
This view； particularly as to the nature of putrefaction； was expressed even more outspokenly a little later by the French botanist Turpin。 Views so supported naturally gained a following； it was equally natural that so radical an innovation should be antagonized。 In this case it chanced that one of the most dominating scientific minds of the time； that of Liebig； took a firm and aggressive stand against the new doctrine。 In 1839 he promulgated his famous doctrine of fermentation； in which he stood out firmly against any 〃vitalistic〃 explanation of the phenomena； alleging that the presence of micro…organisms in fermenting and putrefying substances was merely incidental； and in no sense causal。 This opinion of the great German chemist was in a measure substantiated by experiments of his compatriot Helmholtz； whose earlier experiments confirmed； but later ones contradicted； the observations of Schwann； and this combined authority gave the vitalistic conception a blow from which it had not rallied at the time when Pasteur entered the field。 Indeed； it was currently regarded as settled that the early students of the subject had vastly over…estimated the importance of micro…organisms。
And so it came as a new revelation to the generality of scientists of the time； when； in 1857 and the succeeding half…decade； Pasteur published the results of his researches； in which the question had been put to a series of altogether new tests； and brought to unequivocal demonstration。
He proved that the micro…organisms do all that his most imaginative predecessors had suspected； and more。 Without them； he proved； there would be no fermentation； no putrefactionno decay of any tissues； except by the slow process of oxidation。 It is the microscopic yeast…plant which； by seizing on certain atoms of the molecule； liberates the remaining atoms in the form of carbonic…acid and alcohol； thus effecting fermentation； it is another microscopic planta bacterium； as Devaine had christened itwhich in a similar way effects the destruction of organic molecules； producing the condition which we call putrefaction。 Pasteur showed； to the amazement of biologists； that there are certain forms of these bacteria which secure the oxygen which all organic life requires； not from the air； but by breaking up unstable molecules in which oxygen is combined； that putrefaction； in short； has its foundation in the activities of these so…called anaerobic bacteria。
In a word； Pasteur showed that all the many familiar processes of the decay of organic tissues are； in effect； forms of fermentation； and would not take place at all except for the presence of the living micro…organisms。 A piece of meat； for example； suspended in an atmosphere free from germs； will dry up gradually； without the slightest sign of putrefaction； regardless of the temperature or other conditions to which it may have been subjected。 Let us witness one or two series of these experiments as presented by Pasteur himself in one of his numerous papers before the Academy of Sciences。
EXPERIMENTS WITH GRAPE SUGAR
〃In the course of the discussion which took place before the Academy upon the subject of the generation of ferments properly so…called； there was a good deal said about that of wine； the oldest fermentation known。 On this account I decided to disprove the theory of M。 Fremy by a decisive experiment bearing solely upon the juice of grapes。
〃I prepared forty flasks of a capacity of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred cubic centimetres and filled them half full with filtered grape…must； perfectly clear； and which； as is the case of all acidulated liquids that have been boiled for a few seconds； remains uncontaminated although the curved neck of the flask containing them remain constantly open during several months or years。
〃In a small quantity of water I washed a part of a bunch of grapes； the grapes and the stalks together； and the stalks separately。 This washing was easily done by means of a small badger's…hair brush。 The washing…water collected the dust upon the surface of the grapes and the stalks； and it was easily shown under the microscope that this water held in suspension a multitude of minute organisms closely resembling either fungoid spores； or those of alcoholic Yeast； or those of Mycoderma vini； etc。 This being done； ten of the forty flasks were preserved for reference； in ten of the remainder； through the straight tube attached to each； some drops of the was
