a history of science-4-第37章
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he soul； and convulsions and spasmodic movements in disease are due； to the； same cause。 Stagnation of the； blood was supposed to be a fertile cause of diseases； and such diseases were supposed to arise mostly from 〃plethora〃an all…important element in Stahl's therapeutics。 By many this theory is regarded as an attempt on the part of the pious Stahl to reconcile medicine and theology in a way satisfactory to both physicians and theologians； but； like many conciliatory attempts； it was violently opposed by both doctors and ministers。
A belief in such a theory would lead naturally to simplicity in therapeutics； and in this respect at least Stahl was consistent。 Since the soul knew more about the body than any physician could know； Stahl conceived that it would be a hinderance rather than a help for the physician to interfere with complicated doses of medicine。 As he advanced in age this view of the administration of drugs grew upon him； until after rejecting quinine； and finally opium； he at last used only salt and water in treating his patients。 From this last we may judge that his 〃system；〃 if not doing much good； was at least doing little harm。
The theory of the Vitalists was closely allied to that of the Animists； and its most important representative； Paul Joseph Barthez； was a cultured and eager scientist。 After an eventful and varied career as physician； soldier； editor； lawyer； and philosopher in turn； he finally returned to the field of medicine； was made consulting physician by Napoleon in 1802； and died in Paris four years later。
The theory that he championed was based on the assumption that there was a 〃vital principle；〃 the nature of which was unknown； but which differed from the thinking mind； and was the cause of the phenomena of life。 This 〃vital principle〃 differed from the soul； and was not exhibited in human beings alone； but even in animals and plants。 This force； or whatever it might be called； was supposed to be present everywhere in the body； and all diseases were the results of it。
The theory of the Organicists； like that of the Animists and Vitalists； agreed with the other two that vital activity could not be explained by the laws of physics and chemistry； but； unlike them； it held that it was a part of the structure of the body itself。 Naturally the practical physicians were more attracted by this tangible doctrine than by vague theories 〃which converted diseases into unknown derangements of some equally unknown 'principle。' 〃
It is perhaps straining a point to include this brief description of these three schools of medicine in the history of the progress of the science。 But； on the whole； they were negatively at least prominent factors in directing true progress along its proper channel； showing what courses were not to be pursued。 Some one has said that science usually stumbles into the right course only after stumbling into all the wrong ones； and if this be only partially true； the wrong ones still play a prominent if not a very creditable part。 Thus the medical systems of William Cullen （1710…1790）； and John Brown （1735…1788）； while doing little towards the actual advancement of scientific medicine； played so conspicuous a part in so wide a field that the 〃Brunonian system〃 at least must be given some little attention。
According to Brown's theory； life； diseases； and methods of cure are explained by the property of 〃excitability。〃 All exciting powers were supposed to be stimulating； the apparent debilitating effects of some being due to a deficiency in the amount of stimulus。 Thus 〃the whole phenomena of life； health； as well as disease； were supposed to consist of stimulus and nothing else。〃 This theory created a great stir in the medical world； and partisans and opponents sprang up everywhere。 In Italy it was enthusiastically supported； in England it was strongly opposed； while in Scotland riots took place between the opposing factions。 Just why this system should have created any stir； either for or against it； is not now apparent。
Like so many of the other 〃theorists〃 of his century； Brown's practical conclusions deduced from his theory （or perhaps in spite of it） were generally beneficial to medicine； and some of them extremely valuable in the treatment of diseases。 He first advocated the modern stimulant； or 〃feeding treatment〃 of fevers； and first recognized the usefulness of animal soups and beef…tea in certain diseases。
THE SYSTEM OF HAHNEMANN
Just at the close of the century there came into prominence the school of homoeopathy； which was destined to influence the practice of medicine very materially and to outlive all the other eighteenth…century schools。 It was founded by Christian Samuel Friedrich Hahnemann （1755…1843）； a most remarkable man； who； after propounding a theory in his younger days which was at least as reasonable as most of the existing theories； had the misfortune to outlive his usefulness and lay his doctrine open to ridicule by the unreasonable teachings of his dotage；
Hahnemann rejected all the teachings of morbid anatomy and pathology as useless in practice； and propounded his famous 〃similia similibus curantur〃that all diseases were to be cured by medicine which in health produced symptoms dynamically similar to the disease under treatment。 If a certain medicine produced a headache when given to a healthy person； then this medicine was indicated in case of headaches； etc。 At the present time such a theory seems crude enough； but in the latter part of the eighteenth century almost any theory was as good as the ones propounded by Animists； Vitalists； and other such schools。 It certainly had the very commendable feature of introducing simplicity in the use of drugs in place of the complicated prescriptions then in vogue。 Had Hahnemann stopped at this point he could not have been held up to the indefensible ridicule that was brought upon him； with considerable justice； by his later theories。 But he lived onto propound his extraordinary theory of 〃potentiality〃that medicines gained strength by being dilutedand his even more extraordinary theory that all chronic diseases are caused either by the itch； syphilis； or fig…wart disease； or are brought on by medicines。
At the time that his theory of potentialities was promulgated； the medical world had gone mad in its administration of huge doses of compound mixtures of drugs； and any reaction against this was surely an improvement。 In short； no medicine at all was much better than the heaping doses used in common practice； and hence one advantage； at least； of Hahnemann's methods。 Stated briefly； his theory was that if a tincture be reduced to one…fiftieth in strength； and this again reduced to one…fiftieth； and this process repeated up to thirty such dilutions； the potency of such a medicine will be increased by each dilution； Hahnemann himself preferring the weakest； or； as he would call it； the strongest dilution。 The absurdity of such a theory is apparent when it is understood that long before any drug has been raised to its thirtieth dilution it has been so reduced in quantity that it cannot be weighed； measured； or recognized as being present in the solution at all by any means known to chemists。 It is but just to modern followers of homoeopathy to say that while most of them advocate small dosage； they do not necessarily follow the teachings of Hahnemann in this respect； believing that the theory of the dose 〃has nothing more to do with the original law of cure than the psora （itch） theory has； and that it was one of the later creations of Hahnemann's mind。〃
Hahnemann's theory that all chronic diseases are derived from either itch； syphilis； or fig…wart disease is no longer advocated by his followers； because it is so easily disproved； particularly in the case of itch。 Hahnemann taught that fully three…quarters of all diseases were caused by 〃itch struck in；〃 and yet it had been demonstrated long before his day； and can be demonstrated any time； that itch is simply a local skin disease caused by a small parasite。
JENNER AND VACCINATION
All advances in science have a bearing； near or remote； on the welfare of our race； but it remains to credit to the closing decade of the e
