a history of science-4-第32章

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his　Hydrogelogie　of　the　same　date；　should　independently　have　suggested　〃biology〃　as　an　appropriate　word　to　express　the　general　science　of　living　things。　It　is　significant　of　the　tendency　of　thought　of　the　time　that　the　need　of　such　a　unifying　word　should　have　presented　itself　simultaneously　to　independent　thinkers　in　different　countries。

That　same　memorable　year；　Lorenz　Oken；　another　philosophical　naturalist；　professor　in　the　University　of　Zurich；　published　the　preliminary　outlines　of　his　Philosophie　der　Natur；　which；　as　developed　through　later　publications；　outlined　a　theory　of　spontaneous　generation　and　of　evolution　of　species。　Thus　it　appears　that　this　idea　was　germinating　in　the　minds　of　several　of　the　ablest　men　of　the　time　during　the　first　decade　of　our　century。　But　the　singular　result　of　their　various　explications　was　to　give　sudden　check　to　that　undercurrent　of　thought　which　for　some　time　had　been　setting　towards　this　conception。　　As　soon　as　it　was　made　clear　whither　the　concession　that　animals　may　be　changed　by　their　environment　must　logically　trend；　the　recoil　from　the　idea　was　instantaneous　and　fervid。　Then　for　a　generation　Cuvier　was　almost　absolutely　dominant；　and　his　verdict　was　generally　considered　final。

There　was；　indeed；　one　naturalist　of　authority　in　France　who　had　the　hardihood　to　stand　out　against　Cuvier　and　his　school；　and　who　was　in　a　position　to　gain　a　hearing；　though　by　no　means　to　divide　the　following。　This　was　Etienne　Geoffroy　Saint…Hilaire；　the　famous　author　of　the　Philosophie　Anatomique；　and　for　many　years　the　colleague　of　Lamarck　at　the　Jardin　des　Plantes。　　Like　Goethe；　Geoffroy　was　pre…eminently　an　anatomist；　and；　like　the　great　German；　he　had　early　been　impressed　with　the　resemblances　between　the　analogous　organs　of　different　classes　of　beings。　　He　conceived　the　idea　that　an　absolute　unity　of　type　prevails　throughout　organic　nature　as　regards　each　set　of　organs。　Out　of　this　idea　grew　his　gradually　formed　belief　that　similarity　of　structure　might　imply　identity　of　originthat；　in　short；　one　species　of　animal　might　have　developed　from　another。

Geoffroy's　grasp　of　this　idea　of　transmutation　was　by　no　means　so　complete　as　that　of　Lamarck；　and　he　seems　never　to　have　fully　determined　in　his　own　mind　just　what　might　be　the　limits　of　such　development　of　species。　Certainly　he　nowhere　includes　all　organic　creatures　in　one　line　of　descent；　as　Lamarck　had　done；　nevertheless；　he　held　tenaciously　to　the　truth　as　he　saw　it；　in　open　opposition　to　Cuvier；　with　whom　he　held　a　memorable　debate　at　the　Academy　of　Sciences　in　1830the　debate　which　so　aroused　the　interest　and　enthusiasm　of　Goethe；　but　which；　in　the　opinion　of　nearly　every　one　else；　resulted　in　crushing　defeat　for　Geoffrey；　and　brilliant；　seemingly　final；　victory　for　the　advocate　of　special　creation　and　the　fixity　of　species。

With　that　all　ardent　controversy　over　the　subject　seemed　to　end；　and　for　just　a　quarter　of　a　century　to　come　there　was　published　but　a　single　argument　for　transmutation　of　species　which　attracted　any　general　attention　whatever。　　This　oasis　in　a　desert　generation　was　a　little　book　called　Vestiges　of　the　Natural　History　of　Creation；　which　appeared　anonymously　in　England　in　1844；　and　which　passed　through　numerous　editions；　and　was　the　subject　of　no　end　of　abusive　and　derisive　comment。　This　book；　the　authorship　of　which　remained　for　forty　years　a　secret；　is　now　conceded　to　have　been　the　work　of　Robert　Chambers；　the　well…known　English　author　and　publisher。　　The　book　itself　is　remarkable　as　being　an　avowed　and　unequivocal　exposition　of　a　general　doctrine　of　evolution；　its　view　being　as　radical　and　comprehensive　as　that　of　Lamarck　himself。　But　it　was　a　resume　of　earlier　efforts　rather　than　a　new　departure；　to　say　nothing　of　its　technical　shortcomings；　which　may　best　be　illustrated　by　a　quotation。

〃The　whole　question；〃　says　Chambers；　〃stands　thus：　　For　the　theory　of　universal　orderthat　is；　order　as　presiding　in　both　the　origin　and　administration　of　the　worldwe　have　the　testimony　of　a　vast　number　of　facts　in　nature；　and　this　one　in　additionthat　whatever　is　left　from　the　domain　of　ignorance；　and　made　undoubted　matter　of　science；　forms　a　new　support　to　the　same　doctrine。　　The　opposite　view；　once　predominant；　has　been　shrinking　for　ages　into　lesser　space；　and　now　maintains　a　footing　only　in　a　few　departments　of　nature　which　happen　to　be　less　liable　than　others　to　a　clear　investigation。　The　chief　of　these；　if　not　almost　the　only　one；　is　the　origin　of　the　organic　kingdoms。　　So　long　as　this　remains　obscure；　the　supernatural　will　have　a　certain　hold　upon　enlightened　persons。　Should　it　ever　be　cleared　up　in　a　way　that　leaves　no　doubt　of　a　natural　origin　of　plants　and　animals；　there　must　be　a　complete　revolution　in　the　view　which　is　generally　taken　of　the　relation　of　the　Father　of　our　being。

〃This　prepares　the　way　for　a　few　remarks　on　the　present　state　of　opinion　with　regard　to　the　origin　of　organic　nature。　The　great　difficulty　here　is　the　apparent　determinateness　of　species。　These　forms　of　life　being　apparently　unchangeable；　or　at　least　always　showing　a　tendency　to　return　to　the　character　from　which　they　have　diverged；　the　idea　arises　that　there　can　have　been　no　progression　from　one　to　another；　each　must　have　taken　its　special　form；　independently　of　other　forms；　directly　from　the　appointment　of　the　Creator。　　The　Edinburgh　Review　writer　says；　'they　were　created　by　the　hand　of　God　and　adapted　to　the　conditions　of　the　period。'　Now　it　is；　in　the　first　place；　not　certain　that　species　constantly　maintain　a　fixed　character；　for　we　have　seen　that　what　were　long　considered　as　determinate　species　have　been　transmuted　into　others。　Passing；　however；　from　this　fact；　as　it　is　not　generally　received　among　men　of　science；　there　remain　some　great　difficulties　in　connection　with　the　idea　of　special　creation。　　First　we　should　have　to　suppose；　as　pointed　out　in　my　former　volume；　a　most　startling　diversity　of　plan　in　the　divine　workings；　a　great　general　plan　or　system　of　law　in　the　leading　events　of　world…making；　and　a　plan　of　minute；　nice　operation；　and　special　attention　in　some　of　the　mere　details　of　the　process。　The　discrepancy　between　the　two　conceptions　is　surely　overpowering；　when　we　allow　ourselves　to　see　the　whole　matter　in　a　steady　and　rational　light。　There　is；　also；　the　striking　fact　of　an　ascertained　historical　progress　of　plants　and　animals　in　the　order　of　their　organization；　marine　and　cellular　plants　and　invertebrated　animals　first；　afterwards　higher　examples　of　both。　　In　an　arbitrary　system　we　had　surely　no　reason　to　expect　mammals　after　reptiles；　yet　in　this　order　they　came。　The　writer　in　the　Edinburgh　Review　speaks　of　animals　as　coming　in　adaptation　to　conditions；　but　this　is　only　true　in　a　limited　sense。　The　groves　which　formed　the　coal…beds　might　have　been　a　fitting　habitation　for　reptiles；　birds；　and　mammals；　as　such　groves　are　at　the　present　day；　yet　we　see　none　of　the　last　of　these　classes　and　hardly　any　traces　of　the　two　first　at　that　period　of　the　earth。　　Where　the　iguanodon　lived　the　elephant　might　have　lived；　but　there　was　no　elephant　at　that　time。　The　sea　of　the　Lower　Silurian　era　was　capable　of　supporting　fish；　but　no　fish　existed。　　It　hence　forcibly　appears　that　theatres　of　life　must　have　remained　unserviceable；　or　in　the　possession　of　a　tenantry　inferior　to　what　might　have　enjoyed　them；　for　many　ages：　there　surely　would　have　been　no　such　waste　allowed　in　a　system　where　Omnipotence　was　working　upon　the　plan　of　minute　attention　to　specialities。　The　fact　seems　to　denote　that　the　actual　procedure　of　the　peopling　of　the　earth　was　one　of　a　natural　kind；　requiring　a　long　space　of　time　for　its　evolution。　　In　this　supposition　the　long　existence　of　land　without　land　animals；　and　more　particularly　without　the　noblest　classes　and　orders；　is　only　analogous　to　the　fact；　not　nearly　enough　present　to　the　minds　of　a　civilized　people；　that　to　this　day　the　bulk　of　the　earth　is　a　waste　as　far　as　man　is　concerned。

〃Another　startling　objection　is　in　the　infinite　local　variation　of　organic　forms。　　Did　the　vegetable　and　animal　kingdoms　consist　of　a　definite　number　of　species　adapted　to　peculiarities　of　soil　and　climate；　and　universally　distributed；　th