a history of science-4-第15章
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as poet； botanist； and statesman； and dividing his attention between art and science。
As a child Haller was so sickly that he was unable to amuse himself with the sports and games common to boys of his age； and so passed most of his time poring over books。 When ten years of age he began writing poems in Latin and German； and at fifteen entered the University of Tubingen。 At seventeen he wrote learned articles in opposition to certain accepted doctrines； and at nineteen he received his degree of doctor。 Soon after this he visited England； where his zeal in dissecting brought him under suspicion of grave…robbery； which suspicion made it expedient for him to return to the Continent。 After studying botany in Basel for some time he made an extended botanical journey through Switzerland； finally settling in his native city； Berne； as a practising physician。 During this time he did not neglect either poetry or botany； publishing anonymously a collection of poems。
In 1736 he was called to Gottingen as professor of anatomy； surgery； chemistry； and botany。 During his labors in the university he never neglected his literary work； sometimes living and sleeping for days and nights together in his library； eating his meals while delving in his books； and sleeping only when actually compelled to do so by fatigue。 During all this time he was in correspondence with savants from all over the world； and it is said of him that he never left a letter of any kind unanswered。
Haller's greatest contribution to medical science was his famous doctrine of irritability； which has given him the name of 〃father of modern nervous physiology；〃 just as Harvey is called 〃the father of the modern physiology of the blood。〃 It has been said of this famous doctrine of irritability that 〃it moved all the minds of the centuryand not in the departments of medicine alonein a way of which we of the present day have no satisfactory conception； unless we compare it with our modern Darwinism。〃＇1＇
The principle of general irritability had been laid down by Francis Glisson （1597…1677） from deductive studies； but Haller proved by experiments along the line of inductive methods that this irritability was not common to all 〃fibre as well as to the fluids of the body；〃 but something entirely special； and peculiar only to muscular substance。 He distinguished between irritability of muscles and sensibility of nerves。 In 1747 he gave as the three forces that produce muscular movements： elasticity； or 〃dead nervous force〃； irritability； or 〃innate nervous force〃； and nervous force in itself。 And in 1752 he described one hundred and ninety experiments for determining what parts of the body possess 〃irritability〃that is； the property of contracting when stimulated。 His conclusion that this irritability exists in muscular substance alone and is quite independent of the nerves proceeding to it aroused a controversy that was never definitely settled until late in the nineteenth century； when Haller's theory was found to be entirely correct。
It was in pursuit of experiments to establish his theory of irritability that Haller made his chief discoveries in embryology and development。 He proved that in the process of incubation of the egg the first trace of the heart of the chick shows itself in the thirty…eighth hour； and that the first trace of red blood showed in the forty…first hour。 By his investigations upon the lower animals he attempted to confirm the theory that since the creation of genus every individual is derived from a preceding individualthe existing theory of preformation； in which he believed； and which taught that 〃every individual is fully and completely preformed in the germ； simply growing from microscopic to visible proportions； without developing any new parts。〃
In physiology； besides his studies of the nervous system； Haller studied the mechanism of respiration； refuting the teachings of Hamberger （1697…1755）； who maintained that the lungs contract independently。 Haller； however； in common with his contemporaries； failed utterly to understand the true function of the lungs。 The great physiologist's influence upon practical medicine； while most profound； was largely indirect。 He was a theoretical rather than a practical physician； yet he is credited with being the first physician to use the watch in counting the pulse。
BATTISTA MORGAGNI AND MORBID ANATOMY
A great contemporary of Haller was Giovanni Battista Morgagni （1682…1771）； who pursued what Sydenham had neglected； the investigation in anatomy； thus supplying a necessary counterpart to the great Englishman's work。 Morgagni's investigations were directed chiefly to the study of morbid anatomythe study of the structure of diseased tissue； both during life and post mortem； in contrast to the normal anatomical structures。 This work cannot be said to have originated with him； for as early as 1679 Bonnet had made similar； although less extensive； studies； and later many investigators； such as Lancisi and Haller； had made post…mortem studies。 But Morgagni's De sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen indagatis was the largest； most accurate； and best…illustrated collection of cases that had ever been brought together； and marks an epoch in medical science。 From the time of the publication of Morgagni's researches； morbid anatomy became a recognized branch of the medical science； and the effect of the impetus thus given it has been steadily increasing since that time。
WILLIAM HUNTER
William Hunter （1718…1783） must always be remembered as one of the greatest physicians and anatomists of the eighteenth century； and particularly as the first great teacher of anatomy in England； but his fame has been somewhat overshadowed by that of his younger brother John。
Hunter had been intended and educated for the Church； but on the advice of the surgeon William Cullen he turned his attention to the study of medicine。 His first attempt at teaching was in 1746； when he delivered a series of lectures on surgery for the Society of Naval Practitioners。 These lectures proved so interesting and instructive that he was at once invited to give others； and his reputation as a lecturer was soon established。 He was a natural orator and story…teller； and he combined with these attractive qualities that of thoroughness and clearness in demonstrations； and although his lectures were two hours long he made them so full of interest that his pupils seldom tired of listening。 He believed that he could do greater good to the world by 〃publicly teaching his art than by practising it；〃 and even during the last few days of his life； when he was so weak that his friends remonstrated against it； he continued his teaching； fainting from exhaustion at the end of his last lecture； which preceded his death by only a few days。
For many years it was Hunter's ambition to establish a museum where the study of anatomy； surgery； and medicine might be advanced； and in 1765 he asked for a grant of a plot of ground for this purpose； offering to spend seven thousand pounds on its； erection besides endowing it with a professorship of anatomy。 Not being able to obtain this grant； however； he built a house； in which were lecture and dissecting rooms； and his museum。 In this museum were anatomical preparations； coins； minerals； and natural…history specimens。
Hunter's weakness was his love of controversy and his resentment of contradiction。 This brought him into strained relations with many of the leading physicians of his time； notably his own brother John； who himself was probably not entirely free from blame in the matter。 Hunter is said to have excused his own irritability on the grounds that being an anatomist； and accustomed to 〃the passive submission of dead bodies；〃 contradictions became the more unbearable。 Many of the physiological researches begun by him were carried on and perfected by his more famous brother； particularly his investigations of the capillaries； but he added much to the anatomical knowledge of several structures of the body； notably as to the structure of cartilages and joints。
JOHN HUNTER
In Abbot Islip's chapel in Westminster Abbey； close to the resting…place of Ben Jonson； rest the remains of Joh
