labour defended against the claims of capital-第7章

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compensates　for　his　physical　inferiority。　After　he　has　inherited
the　knowledge　of　several　generations；　and　when　he　lives
congregated　into　great　masses；　he　is　enabled　by　his　mental
faculties　to　complete；　as　it　were；　the　work　of　nature；　and　add　to
his　intelligence　the　physical　powers　of　the　lower　animals。　He
directs　his　course　on　the　waters；　he　floats　in　the　air；　he　dives
into　the　bowels　of　the　earth；　and　all　which　its　surface　bears　he
makes　tributary　to　his　use。　The　gales　which　threaten　at　first　to
blow　him　from　the　earth；　grind　his　corn；　and　waft　to　him　a　share
in　the　treasures　of　the　whole　world。　He　creates　at　this　pleasure
the　devouring　element　of　fire；　and　checks　its　progress；　so　that
it　destroys　only　what　he　has　no　wish　to　preserve。　He　directs　the
course　of　the　stream；　and　he　sets　bounds　to　the　ocean；　in　short；
he　presses　all　the　elements　into　his　service；　and　makes　Nature
herself　the　handmaid　to　his　will。　The　instruments　he　uses　to　do
all　this；　which　have　been　invented　by　his　intelligence　to　aid　his
feeble　powers；　and　which　are　employed　by　his　skill　and　his　hands；
have　been　called　fixed　capital；　and　shutting　out　of　view　man
himself；　in　order　to　justify　the　existing　order　of　society；　which
is　founded　on　property　or　possessions；　and　the　existing
oppression　of　the　labourer；　who　forms　unhappily　part　of　these
possessions　　all　these　glorious　effects　have　been　attributed；
with　a　more　extraordinary　perversion　of　thought；　perhaps；　than　is
to　be　found　in　any　other　department　of　knowledge；　to　fixed　and
circulating　capital。　The　skill　and　the　art　of　the　labourer　have
been　overlooked；　and　he　has　been　vilified；　while　the　work　of　his
hands　has　been　worshipped。　1

＇1。　In　all　errors　which　are　generally　adopted　there　is　a
tolerable　substratum　of　truth。　In　the　present　case　the　substratum
of　truth　is　this：　There　was　time　in　society　when　capital　and
capitalists　were　of　the　most　essential　service　to　it。　On　the
establishment　of　towns　in　Europe；　and　on　the　introduction　of
manufactures　into　them；　they　became　the　refuge　of　all　the
oppressed　and　enslaved　peasantry　who　could　escape　from　their
feudal　tyrants。　The　capitalists　and　manufacturers　who　inhabited
them　were　the　skilled　labourers；　and　really　gave　employment　and
protection　to　the　peasantry。　They　taught　them　useful　arts；　and
hence　became　invested　with　the　character　of　benefactors；　both　to
the　poor　and　the　state。　They　were　infinitely　better　than　the
feudal　barons　with　whom　they　were　compared；　and　the　character
they　then　acquired　they　now　retain。　The　veneration　men　have　for
capital　and　capitalists　is　founded　on　a　sort　of　superstitious　and
transmitted　notion　of　their　utility　in　former　times。　But　they
have　long　since　reduced　the　ancient　tyrant　of　the　soil　to
comparative　insignificance；　while　they　have　inherited　his　power
over　all　the　labouring　classes。　It　is；　therefore；　now　time　that
the　reproaches　so　long　cast　on　the　feudal　aristocracy　should　be
heaped　on　capital　and　capitalists；　or　on　that　still　more
oppressive　aristocracy　which　is　founded　on　wealth；　and　which　is
nourished　by　profit。＇

　　　　　I　have　now　show　the　reader　that　the　effects　attributed　to
circulating　capital　result　from　co…existing　labour；　and　the
assurance　common　to　each　labourer；　that　he　will　be　able　to
procure　what　he　wants；　or　that　while　he　is　at　work　other　men　are
also　at　work。　I　have　also　shown　that　fixed　capital　is　produce　by
the　skill　of　the　labourer。　Circulating　capital；　consisting　of
food　and　clothes；　is　created　only　for　consumption；　while　fixed
capital；　consisting　of　instruments　and　tools；　is　made；　not　to　be
consumed；　but　to　aid　the　labourer　in　producing　those　things　which
are　to　be　consumed。　There　is　no　analogy　between　these　two
descriptions　of　commodities；　except　that　both　are　the　produce　of
labour；　and　both　give　the　owner　of　them　a　profit。
　　　　　There　is；　however；　a　striking　difference　between　them　which
deserves　to　be　noticed。　It　is　usually　stated　that　〃the　productive
industry　of　any　country　is　in　proportion　to　its　capital；　increase
when　its　capital　increases；　and　declines　when　its　capital
declines。〃　This　position　is　true　only　of　circulating　capital；　but
not　of　fixed　capital。　The　number　of　productive　labourers　depends
certainly　on　the　quantity　of　food；　clothing；　etc。；　produced　and
appropriated　to　their　use；　it　is　not；　however；　the　quantity　but
the　quality　of　the　fixed　capital　on　which　the　productive　industry
of　a　country　depends。　Instruments　are　productive；　to　use　the
improper　language　of　the　political　economists；　not　in　proportion
as　they　multiplied；　but　as　they　are　efficient。　It　is　probable
that　since　Mr　Watt's　improvements　on　the　steam　engine　one　man　can
perform　as　much　work　with　these　instruments　as　ten　men　did
before。　As　the　efficiency　of　the　fixed　capital　is　increased　by
men　obtaining　greater　knowledge　and　greater　skill；　it　is　quite
possible；　and　is　the　case；　that　a　greater　quantity　of
commodities；　or　a　greater　means　of　nourishing　and　supporting　men；
is　obtained　with　less　capital。　Although；　therefore；　the　number　of
labourers　must　at　all　times　depend　on　the　quantity　of　circulating
capital；　or；　as　I　should　say；　on　the　quantity　of　the　products　of
co…existing　labour；　which　labourers　are　allowed　to　consume；　the
quality　of　commodities　they　produce　will　depend　on　the　efficiency
of　their　fixed　capital。　Circulating　capital　nourishes　and
supports　men　as　its　quantity　is　increased；　fixed　capital　as　a
means　of　nourishing　and　supporting　men　depends　for　its　efficiency
altogether　on　the　skill　of　the　labourer；　and　consequently　the
productive　industry　of　a　country；　as　far　as　fixed　capital　is
concerned；　is　in　proportion　to　the　knowledge　and　skill　of　the
people。
　　　　　The　warmest　admirers　of　circulating　capital　will　not　pretend
that　it　adds　in　the　same　way　as　fixed　capital　to　the　productive
power　of　the　labourer。　The　most　extraordinary　visionary　who　ever
wrote　cannot　suppose　circulating　capital　adds　anything　to
productive　power。　The　degree　and　nature　of　the　utility　of　both
species　of　capital　is　perfectly　different　and　distinct。　The
labourer　subsists　on　what　is　called　circulating　capital；　he　works
with　fixed　capital。　But　equal　quantities　or　equal　values　of　both
these　species　of　capital　bring　their　owner　precisely　the　same
amount　of　profit。　We　may；　from　this　single　circumstance；　be　quite
sure　that　the　share　claimed　by　the　capitalist　for　the　use　of
fixed　capital　is　not　derived　from　the　instruments　increasing　the
efficiency　of　labour；　or　from　the　utility　of　these　instruments；
and　profit　is　derived　in　both　cases　from　the　power　which　the
capitalist　has　over　the　labourer　who　consumes　the　circulating；
and　who　uses　the　fixed；　capital。　How　he　obtained　this　power　I
shall　not　now　inquire；　further　than　to　state　that　it　is　derived
from　the　whole　surface　of　the　country；　having　been　at　one　period
monopolised　by　a　few　persons；　and　the　consequent　state　of　slavery
in　which　the　labourer　formerly　existed　in　this　country；　as　well
as　throughout　Europe。　As　the　profits　of　the　capitalist　on　fixed
capital　are　not　derived　from　the　utility　of　these　instruments；　it
is　useless　to　inquire　what　share　ought　to　belong　to　the　owner　of
the　wood　and　iron；　and　what　share　ought　to　belong　to　the　person
who　uses　them。　He　who　makes　the　instruments　is　entitled；　in　the
eye　of　justice；　and　in　proportion　to　the　labour　he　employs；　to　as
great　a　reward　as　he　who　uses　them；　but　he　is　not　entitled　to　a
greater；　and　he　who　neither　makes　nor　uses　them　has　no　just　claim
to　any　portion　of　the　produce。
　　　　　Betwixt　him　who　produces　food　and　him　who　produces　clothing；
betwixt　him　who　makes　instruments　and　him　who　uses　them；　in　steps
the　capitalist；　who　neither　makes　nor　uses　them；　and　appropriates
to　himself　the　produce　of　both。　With　as　niggard　a　hand　as
possible　he　transfers　to　each　a　part　of　the　produce　of　the　other；
keeping　to　himself　the　large　share。　Gradually　and　successively
has　he　insinuated　himself　betwixt　them；　expanding　in　bulk　as　he
has　been　nourished　by　their　increasingly　productive　labours；　and
separating　them　so　widely　from　each　other　that　neither　can　see
whence　that　supply　is　drawn　which　each　receives　through　the
capitalist。　While　he　despoils　both；　so　comple