labour defended against the claims of capital-第5章

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the　rising　generation　of　labourers　use　while　they　are　learning
those　arts　by　means　of　which　they　will　hereafter　produce　all　the
wealth　of　society。　For　the　rearing　and　educating　all　future
labourers　（of　course　I　do　not　mean　book　education；　which　is　the
smallest　and　least　useful　part　of　all　which　they　have　to　learn）
their　parents　have　no　stock　stored　up　beyond　their　own　practical
skill。　Under　the　strong　influence　of　natural　affection　and
parental　love；　they　prepare　by　their　toils；　continued　day　after
day；　and　year　after　year；　through　all　the　long　period　of　the
infancy　and　childhood　of　their　offspring；　those　future　labourers
who　are　to　succeed　to　their　toils　and　their　hard　fare；　but　who
will　inherit　their　productive　power；　and　be　what　they　now　are；
the　main　pillars　of　the　social　edifice。
　　　　　If　we　duly　consider　the　number　and　importance　of　those
wealth…producing　operations　which　are　not　completed　within　the
year；　and　the　numberless　products　of　daily　labour；　necessary　to
subsistence；　which　are　consumed　as　soon　as　produced；　we　shall；　I
think；　be　sensible　that　the　success　and　productive　power　of　every
different　species　of　labour　is　at　all　times　more　dependent　on　the
co…existing　productive　labour　of　other　men　than　on　any
accumulation　of　circulating　capital。　The　labourer；　having　no
stock　of　commodities；　undertakes　to　bring　up　his　children；　and
teach　them　a　useful　art；　always　relying　on　his　own　labour；　and
various　classes　of　persons　undertake　tasks　the　produce　of　which
is　not　completed　for　a　long　period；　relying　on　the　labour　of
other　men　to　procure　them；　in　the　meantime；　what　they　require　for
subsistence。　All　classes　of　men　carry　on　their　daily　toils　in　the
full　confidence　that　while　each　is　engaged　in　his　particular
occupation　some　others　will　prepare　whatever　he　requires；　both
for　his　immediate　and　future　consumption　and　use。　I　have　already
explained　that　this　confidence　arises　from　that　law　of　our　nature
by　which　we　securely　expect　the　sun　will　rise　tomorrow；　and　that
our　fellow　men　will　labour　on　the　morrow　and　during　the　next　year
as　they　have　laboured　during　the　year　and　the　day　which　have
passed。　I　hope　I　have　also　satisfied　the　reader　that　there　is　no
knowledge　of　any　produce　of　previous　labour　stored　up　for　use；
that　the　effects　usually　attributed　to　a　stock　of　commodities　are
caused　by　co…existing　labour；　and　that　it　is　by　the　command　the
capitalist　possesses　over　the　labour　of　some　men；　not　by　his
possessing　a　stock　of　commodities；　that　he　is　enabled　to　support
and　consequently　employ　other　labourers。
　　　　　I　come　now　to　examine；　secondly；　the　nature　and　effects　of
fixed　capital。　Fixed　capital　consists　of　the　tools　and
instruments　the　labourer　works　with；　the　machinery　he　makes　and
guides；　and　the　buildings　he　uses　either　to　facilitate　his
exertions　or　to　protect　their　produce。　Unquestionably　by　using
these　instruments　man　adds　wonderfully　to　his　power。　Without　a
hand　saw；　a　portion　of　fixed　capital；　he　could　not　cut　a　tree
into　planks；　with　such　an　instrument　he　could；　though　it　would
cost　him　many　hours　or　days；　but　with　a　sawmill　he　could　do　it　in
a　few　minutes。　Every　man　must　admit　that　by　means　of　instruments
and　machines　the　labourer　can　execute　tasks　he　could　not　possibly
perform　without　them；　that　he　can　perform　a　greater　quantity　of
work　in　a　given　time；　and　that　he　can　perform　the　work　with
greater　nicety　and　accuracy　than　he　could　possibly　do　had　he　no
instruments　and　machines。　But　the　question　then　occurs；　what
produces　instruments　and　machines；　and　in　what　degree　do　they　aid
production　independent　of　the　labourer；　so　that　the　owners　of
them　are　entitled　to　by　far　the　greater　part　of　the　whole　produce
of　the　country？　Are　they；　or　are　they　not；　the　produce　of　labour？
Do　they；　or　do　they　not；　constitute　an　efficient　means　of
production；　separate　from　labour？　Are　they；　or　are　they　not；　so
much　inert　decaying　and　dead　matter；　of　no　utility　whatever；
possessing　no　productive　power　whatever；　but　as　they　are　guided；
directed　and　applied　by　skilful　hands？　The　reader　will　be　able
instantly　to　answer　these　questions；　and　I　only　add　my　answers
because　they　lead　to　some　conclusions　different　from　those
generally　adopted。
　　　　　It　is　admitted　by　those　who　contend　most　strenuously　for　the
claims　of　capital　that　all　instruments　and　machines　are　the
produce　of　labour。　They　add；　however；　that　they　are　the　produce
of　previous　labour；　and　are　entitled　to　profit；　on　account　of
having　been　saved　or　stored　up。　But　the　manufacture　of
instruments　and　tools　is　quite　as　uninterrupted　as　the
manufacture　of　food　and　clothing。　They　are　not　all　consumed　or
used　within　a　year；　but　they　are　brought　into　use　as　soon　as
possible　after　they　are　made。　Nobody　who　manufactures　them　stores
them　up；　nor　does　he　make　them　for　this　purpose。　As　long　as　they
are　merely　the　result　of　previous　labour；　and　are　not　applied　to
their　respective　uses　by　labourers；　they　do　not　repay　the　expense
of　making　them。　It　is　only　when　they　are　so　applied　that　they
bring　any　profit。　They　are　made　solely　for　the　use　of　the
labourer；　and　directly　they　come　into　his　hands　they　return　or
repay　the　capitalist；　the　sum　they　cost　him；　and　over　and　above
this　the　labourer　must　give　him　an　additional　sum　corresponding
to　the　rate　of　profit　in　the　country。　It　is　plainly　not　the
previous　creation　of　these　things　which　entitles　them　to　profit；
for　most　of　them　diminish　in　value　from　being　kept。　A　man　must
pay　also　as　much　profit　for　the　use　of　an　instrument　in
proportion　to　the　labour　of　making　it；　whether　it　be　like　sewing
needles；　of　which　many　are　used　and　made　in　the　course　of　a　week；
or　like　a　ship；　or　a　steam　engine；　one　of　which　lasts　several
years。　Fixed　capital　does　not　derive　its　utility　from　previous；
but　present　labour；　and　does　not　bring　its　owner　a　profit　because
it　has　been　stored　up；　but　because　it　is　a　means　of　obtaining　a
command　over　labour。
　　　　　The　production　of　fixed　capital　cannot　be　attributed　to
circulating　capital；　in　the　ordinary　sense；　but　certainly　those
who　make　instruments　must　be　confident　they　will　be　able　to
obtain　food；　or　they　would　never　think　of　making　instruments。　The
smith；　while　he　is　making　or　mending　the　farmer's　ploughshare；
trusts　to　the　farmer　to　do　his　part　in　procuring　a　supply　of
food；　and　the　farmer；　while　he　tills　his　fields；　trusts　to　the
smith　to　prepare　for　him　the　necessary　instruments。　These
instruments　are　not　the　produce　of　circulating　capital　and　of
labour；　but　of　labour　alone；　and　of　the　labour　of　two　or　more
co…existing　persons。　All　fixed　capital；　not　only　in　the　first
instance；　as　is　generally　admitted；　but　in　every　stage　of
society；　at　every　period　in　the　history　of　man；　is　the　creation
of　labour　and　of　skill；　of　different　species　of　labour　and　skill
certainly；　but　of　nothing　more　than　labour　and　skill。
　　　　　After　any　instruments　have　been　made；　what　do　they　effect？
Nothing。　On　the　contrary；　they　begin　to　rust　or　decay　unless　used
or　applied　by　labour。　The　most　perfect　instrument　which　the
cunning　hand　of　man　can　make　is　not　instinct　with　life；　and　it
constantly　needs　the　directing　hand　of　its　creator；　or　of　some
other　labourer。　An　artist　may　indeed　make　an　automaton；　or　a
timepiece；　which　will　move　for　a　certain　period　without　further
labour；　but　the　motion　he　gives　it　is；　in　this　case；　the　final
object　and　aim　of　labour；　and　the　instruments　are　not　called
fixed　capital；　because　they　are　not　used　for　further　production。
The　automaton　may　be　exhibited　by　its　owner　for　money；　and　the
timepiece；　if　employed　to　determine　the　longitude　of　a　ship；　may
be　a　portion　of　fixed　capital；　useful　in　that　production　which　is
occasioned　by　commerce。　In　this　case；　however；　there　is　an
observer　required；　and　it　is　by　his　labour　and　skill；　he　making
use　of　the　timepiece；　that　the　ship's　place　is　ascertained。
Whether　an　instrument　shall　be　regarded　as　productive　capital　or
not　depends　entirely　on　its　being　used；　or　not；　by　some
productive　labourer。
　　　　　The　most　perfect　instruments　ever　made　by　labour　require；　as
in　the　case　of　a　timepiece；　a　peculiar　skill　to　render　them
productive。　A　ship；　for　example；　is　undoubtedly　a