labour defended against the claims of capital-第2章

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capitalists；　as　supported　by　the　theories　of　political　economy。
　　　　　I　admit　that　the　subject　is　somewhat　abstruse；　but　there　is
a　necessity　for　the　labourers　to　comprehend　and　be　able　to　refute
the　received　notions　of　the　nature　and　utility　of　capital。　Wages
vary　inversely　as　profits；　or　wages　rise　when　profits　fall；　and
profits　rise　when　wages　fall；　and　it　is　therefore　profits；　or　the
capitalist's　share　of　the　national　produce；　which　is　opposed　to
wages；　or　the　share　of　the　labourer。　The　theory　on　which　profits
are　claimed；　and　which　holds　up　capital；　and　accumulation　of
capital　to　our　administration　as　the　mainspring　of　human
improvement；　is　that　which　I　say　the　labourers　must；　in　their　own
interest；　examine；　and　must；　before　they　can　have　any　hope　of　a
permanent　improvement　in　their　own　conditions；　be　able　to　refute。
They；　indeed；　are　so　satisfied　that　by　their　exertions　all　the
wealth　of　society　is　produced　that　no　doubt　on　the　subject　has
ever　entered　their　minds。　This　is　not；　however；　the　case　with
other　people；　and　whenever　the　labourers　claim　larger　wages；　or
combine　to　do　themselves　justice；　they　hear；　both　from　the
legislature　and　the　Press；　little　or　nothing　about　the　necessity
of　rewarding　labour；　but　much　about　the　necessity　of　protecting
capital。　They　must　therefore　be　able　to　show　the　hollowness　of
the　theory　on　which　the　claims　of　capital；　and　on　which　all　the
oppressive　laws　made　for　its　protection　are　founded。　This　will；　I
hope；　be　a　motive　with　them　for　endeavouring　to　comprehend　the
following　observations；　as　it　is　my　excuse　for　directing　them；
not　so　much　to　show　what　labour　ought；　as　to　what　capital　ought
not　to　have。
　　　　　　〃The　produce　of　the　earth；〃　says　Mr　Ricardo　　〃All　that　is
derived　from　its　surface　by　the　united　application　of　labour；
machinery　and　capital　is　divided　among　three　classes　of　the
community；　namely；　the　proprietor　of　the　land；　the　owner　of　the
stock　or　capital　necessary　for　its　cultivation；　and　the　labourers
by　whose　industry　it　is　cultivated。〃　（Principles　of　Political
Economy；　Preface；　p。　1；　2nd　Ed。）
　　　　　〃It　is　self…evident；〃　says　Mr　M'Culloch；　〃that　only　three
classes；　the　labourers；　the　possessors　of　capital；　and　the
proprietors　of　land；　are　ever　directly　concerned　in　the
production　of　commodities。　It　is　to　them；　therefore；　that　all
which　is　derived　from　the　surface　of　the　earth；　or　from　its
bowels；　by　the　united　application　of　immediate　labour；　and　of
capital；　or　accumulated　labour；　must　primarily　belong。　The　other
classes　of　society　have　no　revenue　except　what　they　derive　either
voluntarily　or　by　compulsion　from　these　three　classes。〃
　　　　　The　proportions　in　which　the　whole　produce　is　divided　among
these　three　classes　is　said　to　be　as　follows：　　〃Land　is　of
different　degrees　of　fertility。〃　〃When；　in　the　progress　of
society；　land　of　the　second　quality　（or　an　inferior　degree　of
fertility　to　land　before　cultivated）　is　taken　into　cultivation；
rent　immediately　commences　on　that　of　the　first　quality；　and　the
amount　of　that　rent　will　depend　on　the　difference　in　the　quality；
and　the　amount　of　that　rent　will　depend　on　the　difference　in　the
quality　of　these　two　portions　or　land。〃　＇Principles　of　Political
Economy＇　Rent；　therefore；　or　that　quantity　of　the　whole　produce
of　the　country　which　goes　to　the　landlords；　is；　in　every　stage　of
society；　that　portion　of　this　produce　which　is　obtained　from
every　district　belonging　to　a　politically　organized　nation；　more
than　is　obtained　from　the　least　fertile　land　cultivated　by；　or
belonging　to；　that　nation。　It　is　the　greater　produce　of　all　the
land　which　is　more　fertile　than　the　least　fertile　land
cultivated。　To　produce　this　surplus　would　not　break　the　back；　and
to　give　it　up　would　not　break　the　heart　of　the　labourer。　The
landlord's　share；　therefore；　does　not　keep　the　labourer　poor。
　　　　　The　labourer's　share　of　the　produce　of　a　country；　according
to　this　theory；　is　the　〃necessaries　and　conveniences　required　for
the　support　of　the　labourer　and　his　family；　or　that　quantity
which　is　necessary　to　enable　the　labourers；　one　with　another；　to
subsist　and　to　perpetuate　their　race；　without　either　increase　or
diminution。〃　Whatever　may　be　the　truth　of　the　theory　in　other
respects；　there　is　no　doubt　of　its　correctness　in　this
particular。　The　labourers　do　only　receive；　and　ever　have　only
received；　as　much　as　will　subsist　them；　the　landlords　receive　the
surplus　produce　of　the　more　fertile　soils；　and　all　the　rest　of
the　whole　produce　of　labour　in　this　and　in　every　country　goes　to
the　capitalist　under　the　name　of　profit　for　the　use　of　his
capital。
　　　　　Capital　which　thus　engrosses　the　whole　produce　of　a　country；
except　the　bare　subsistence　of　the　labourer；　and　the　surplus
produce　of　fertile　land；　is；　〃the　produce　of　labour；〃　〃is
commodities；〃　〃is　the　food　the　labourer　eats；　and　the　machines　he
uses〃：　so　that　we　are　obliged　to　give　that　enormous　portion　of
the　whole　produce　of　the　country　which　remains；　after　we　have
been　supplied　with　subsistence；　and　the　rent　of　the　landlord　has
been　paid；　for　the　privilege　of　eating　the　food　we　have　ourselves
produced；　and　of　using　our　own　skill　in　producing　more。　Capital；
the　reader　will　suppose；　must　have　some　wonderful　properties；
when　the　labourer　pays　so　exorbitantly　for　it。　In　fact；　its
claims　are　founded　on　its　wonderful　properties；　and　to　them；
therefore；　I　mean　especially　to　direct　his　attention。
　　　　　Several　good　and　great　men；　whom　we　must　all　respect　and
esteem；　seeing　that　capital　did　obtain　all　the　large　share　I　have
mentioned；　and　being　more　willing；　apparently；　to　defend　and　to
explain　the　present　order　of　society　than　to　ascertain　whether　it
could　be　improved；　have　endeavoured　to　point　out　the　method　in
which　capital　aids　production。　From　their　writings　I　shall
extract　some　passages　explanatory　of　its　effects。　I　must；
however；　beg　not　to　be　understood　as　doing　this　invidiously。　The
only　motive　I　have　for　selecting　these　authors；　as　the
representatives　of　the　political　economists；　is；　that　they　are　by
far　the　more　efficient　and　eloquent　supporters　of　the　doctrine　I
do　not　assent　to。
　　　　　　Mr　M'Culloch　says：　〃The　accumulation　and　employment　of　both
fixed　and　circulating　capital　is　indispensably　necessary　to
elevate　any　nation　in　the　scale　of　civilization。　And　it　is　only
by　their　conjoined　and　powerful　operation　that　wealth　can　be
largely　produced　and　universally　diffused。〃　＇Article　〃Political
Economy〃　in　Supplement　to　Encyclopedia　Britannica。＇
　　　　　〃The　quantity　of　industry；〃　he　further　says；　〃therefore　not
only　increases　in　every　country　with　the　increase　of　the　stock　or
capital　which　sets　it　in　motion；　but；　in　consequence　of　this
increase；　the　division　of　labour　becomes　extended；　new　and　more
powerful　implements　and　machines　are　invented；　and　the　same
quantity　of　labour　is　thus　made　to　produce　an　infinitely　greater
quantity　of　commodities。
　　　　　〃Besides　its　effect　in　enabling　labour　to　be　divided；
capital　contributes　to　facilitate　labour；　and　produce　wealth　in
the　three　following　ways：
　　　　　〃First。　　It　enables　us　to　execute　work　that　could　not　be
executed；　or　to　produce　commodities　that　could　not　be　produced
without　it。
　　　　　〃Second。　　It　saves　labour　in　the　production　of　almost
every　species　of　commodities。
　　　　　〃Third。　　It　enables　us　to　execute　work　better；　as　well　as
more　expeditiously。〃
　　　　　Mr　Mill's　account　of　these　effects；　though　not　so　precise；
is　still　more　astounding。　〃The　labourer；〃　he　says；　〃has　neither
raw　materials　nor　tools。　These　are　provided　for　him　by　the
capitalist。　For　making　this　provision　the　capitalist　of　course
expects　a　reward。〃　According　to　this　statement；　the　capitalist
provides　for　the　labourer　and　only；　therefore；　expects　a　profit。
In　other　parts　of　his　book　it　is　not　the　capitalist　who　provides；
but　the　capital　which　works。　He　speaks　of　capital　as　an
instrument　of　production　co…operating　with　labour；　as　an　active
agent　combining　with　labour　to　produce　commodities；　and　thus　he
satisfies　himself；　and　endeavours　to　prove　to　the　reader　that
capital　is　entitled　to　all　that　large　share　of　the　produce　it
actually　receives。　He　also　attributes　to　capital　power　of
accumulat