the origin of the distinction of ranks-第44章

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　　　Notwithstanding；　if　he　continue　a　day　or　two；　he　shall　not　be　punished：　for　he　is　his　money。　　　　　And　if　a　man　smite　the　eye　of　his　servant；　or　the　eye　of　his　maid；　that　it　perish；　he　shall　let　him　go　free　for　his　eye's　sake。　　　　　And　if　he　smite　out　his　man…servant's　tooth；　or　his　maid…servant's　tooth；　he　shall　let　him　go　free　for　his　tooth's　sake。（7*）　　　　　At　Athens；　the　slaves　who　had　been　barbarously　treated　by　their　master　were　allowed　to　fly　for　sanctuary　to　the　temple　of　Theseus；　and　to　commence　a　suit　at　law　against　their　master；　who；　if　their　complaint　appeared　well　founded；　was　laid　under　the　necessity　of　selling　them。　　　　　Various　equitable　laws；　upon　this　subject；　were　made　by　the　Roman　emperors。　At　Rome；　the　absolute　power　of　the　master　was　first　subjected　to　any　limitation　in　the　reign　of　Augustus；　who　appointed　that　the　Praefectus　urbi　should　afford　redress　to　such　of　the　slaves　as　had　been　treated　with　immoderate　severity。　In　the　reign　of　the　emperor　Claudius；　it　was　enacted；　that　if　a　master　abandoned　the　care　of　his　slaves　during　their　sickness；　he　should　forfeit　the　property　of　them；　and　that　if　he　put　them　to　death；　he　should　be　held　guilty　of　homicide。　Soon　after；　the　inhuman　practice　of　obliging　the　slaves　to　fight　with　wild　beasts；　which　was　carried　to　a　prodigious　height；　and　which　appears　to　have　afforded　a　favourite　entertainment　to　men　of　all　ranks；　was　in　some　measure　restrained。　Other　statutes　were　afterwards　made；　in　the　reigns　of　Adrian；　or　Antoninus　Pius；　and　of　Constantine；　by　which　it　was　finally　established；　that　the　master　who　killed　his　own　slave；　by　design；　and　not　from　the　accidental　excess　of　chastisement；　should　suffer　the　ordinary　punishment　of　murder。　Section　III　Causes　of　the　freedom　acquired　by　the　labouring　people　in　the　modern　nations　of　Europe　　　　　By　what　happy　concurrence　of　events　has　the　practice　of　slavery　been　so　generally　abolished　in　Europe？　By　what　powerful　motives　were　our　forefathers　induced　to　deviate　from　the　maims　of　other　nations；　and　to　abandon　a　custom　so　generally　retained　in　other　parts　of　the　world？　　　　　The　northern　barbarians；　who　laid　the　foundation　of　the　present　European　states；　are　said　to　have　possessed　a　number　of　slaves；　obtained　either　by　captivity　or　by　voluntary　submission；　and　over　whom　the　master　enjoyed　an　unlimited　authority。（8*）　　　　　When　these　nations　invaded　the　Roman　empire；　and　settled　in　the　different　provinces；　they　were　enabled　by　their　repeated　victories　to　procure　an　immense　number　of　captives；　whom　they　reduced　into　servitude；　and　by　whose　assistance　they　occupied　landed　estates　of　proportionable　extent　From　the　simple　manner　of　living　to　which　those　barbarians　had　been　accustomed；　their　domestic　business　was　usually　performed　by　the　members　of　each　family；　and　their　servants；　for　the　most　part；　were　employed　in　cultivating　their　lands。　　　　　It　appears　that；　upon　the　settlement　of　these　invaders　in　the　Roman　empire；　no　immediate　change　was　produced　in　their　notions　with　respect　to　slavery；　and　that　the　slaves　which　they　gradually　acquired　by　the　success　of　their　arms　were；　at　first；　in　the　same　condition　with　those　which　they　had　anciently　possessed。　The　master　exercised　an　unlimited　power　of　chastising　them；　and　might　even　put　them　to　death　with　impunity。　They　were　liable　to　be　alienated；　or　impledged　by　the　master　at　pleasure；　and　were　incapable；　either　of　marrying；　or　of　entering　into　any　other　contract；　without　his　consent。　They　were　so　much　his　property；　that　he　might　claim　them　from　every　possessor；　by　the　ordinary　action　which　was　given　for　the　recovery　of　his　goods；　and　in　consequence　of　this；　it　was　held　they　could　have　no　civil　rights；　so　that　whatever　was　acquired　by　their　labour　belonged　to　the　master；　from　whom　they　usually　received　nothing　but　a　precarious　subsistence。　In　a　public　capacity；　the　people　of　this　class　were　viewed　in　a　light　no　less　humiliating；　they　enjoyed　none　of　the　privileges　of　a　citizen；　and　were　seldom　permitted　to　give　evidence　against　a　free　man　in　a　court　of　justice。（9*）　　　　　The　situation；　however；　of　these　bond…men；　and　the　nature　of　the　employment　in　which　they　were　usually　engaged；　had　a　tendency　to　procure　them　a　variety　of　privileges　from　their　master；　by　which；　in　a　course　of　ages；　their　condition　was　rendered　more　comfortable；　and　they　were　advanced　to　higher　degrees　of　consideration　and　rank。　　　　　As　the　peasants　belonging　to　a　single　person　could　not　be　conveniently　maintained　in　his　house；　so　in　order　to　cultivate　his　lands　to　advantage；　it　was　necessary　that　they　should　be　sent　to　a　distance；　and　have　a　fixed　residence　in　different　parts　of　his　estate。　Separate　habitations　were　therefore　assigned　them；　and　particular　farms　were　committed　to　the　care　of　individuals；　who　from　their　residing　in　the　neighbourhood　of　one　another；　and　forming　small　villages　or　hamlets；　received　the　appellation　of　'villains'。　　　　　It　may　easily　be　imagined　that；　in　those　circumstances；　the　proprietor　of　a　large　estate　could　not　oversee　the　behaviour　of　his　servants；　living　in　separate　families；　and　scattered　over　the　wide　extent　of　his　demesnes；　and　it　was　in　vain　to　think　of　compelling　them　to　labour　by　endeavouring　to　chastise　them　upon　account　of　their　idleness。　A　very　little　experience　would　show　that　no　efforts　of　that　kind　could　be　effectual；　and　that　the　only　means　of　exciting　the　industry　of　the　peasants　would　be　to　offer　them　a　reward　for　the　work　which　they　performed。　Thus；　beside　the　ordinary　maintenance　allotted　to　the　slaves；　they　frequently　obtained　a　small　gratuity；　which；　by　custom；　was　gradually　converted　into　a　regular　hire；　and；　being　allowed　the　enjoyment　and　disposal　of　that　subject；　they　were　at　length　understood　to　be　capable　of　having　separate　property。　　　　　After　the　master　came　to　reside　at　a　distance　from　the　bulk　of　his。　servants；　and　had　embraced　the　salutary　policy　of　bribing　them；　instead　of　using　compulsion；　in　order　to　render　them　active　in　their　employment；　he　was　less　apt　to　be　provoked　by　their　negligence；　and　as　he　had　seldom　occasion　to　treat　them　with　severity；　the　ancient　dominion　which　he　exercised　over　their　lives　was　at　length　entirely　lost　by　disuse。　　　　　When　a　slave　had　been　for　a　long　time　engaged　in　a　particular　farm；　and　had　become　acquainted　with　that　particular　culture　which　it　required；　he　was　so　much　the　better　qualified　to　continue　in　the　management　of　it　for　the　future；　and　it　was　contrary　to　the　interest　of　the　master　that　he　should　be　removed　to　another　place；　or　employed　in　labour　of　a　different　kind。　By　degrees；　therefore；　the　peasants　were　regarded　as　belonging　to　the　stock　upon　the　ground；　and　came　to　be　uniformly　disposed　of　as　a　part　of　the　estate　which　they　had　been　accustomed　to　cultivate。　　　　　As　these　changes　were　gradual；　it　is　difficult　to　ascertain　the　precise　period　at　which　they　were　completed。　The　continual　disorders　which　prevailed　in　the　western　part　of　Europe；　for　ages　after　it　was　first　over…run　by　the　German　nations；　prevented　for　a　long　time　the　progress　of　arts　among　the　new　inhabitants。　It　was　about　the　twelfth　century　that　a　spirit　of　improvement；　in　several　European　countries；　became　somewhat　conspicuous；　and　it　may　be　considered　as　a　mark　of　that　improvement；　with　respect　to　agriculture；　that　about　this　time；　the　villains　had　obtained　considerable　privileges；　that　the　master's　power　over　their　life　was　then　understood　to　be　extinguished；　that　the　chastisement　to　which　they　had　been　formerly　subjected　was　become　more　moderate；　and　that　they　were　generally　permitted　to　acquire　separate　property。（10*）　　　　　The　effect　of　the　foregoing　circumstances　is　even　observable　in　the　history　of　the　Greek　and　Romans；　among　whom　the　peasants　were　raised　to　a　better　condition　than　the　rest　of　their　slaves。　They　were　indeed　bound　to　serve　the　proprietor　during　life；　and　might　have　been　sold　along　with　the　ground　upon　which　they　were　employed；　but　their　persons　were　not　subject　to　the　absolute　jurisdiction　of　their　master；　they　had　the　privilege　of　marrying　without　his　consent；　they　received　wages　in　return　for　their　labour；　and　were　understood　to　have　a　full　right　of　property　in　whatever　goods　their　industry　had　enabled　them　to　accumulate。　　　　　It　should　seem；　how