the origin of the distinction of ranks-第41章

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viduals　in　the　same　community；　they　imbibed　a　spirit　of　freedom　even　before　they　had　made　considerable　progress　in　arts；　and　they　found　means　to　repress　or　abolish　the　power　of　their　petty　princes；　before　their　effeminacy　or　industry　had　introduced　the　practice　of　maintaining　mercenary　troops。　　　　　The　same　observation　is　applicable　to　the　modern　states　of　Italy；　who；　after　the　decay　of　the　western　empire；　began　to　flourish　in　trade；　and　among　whom　a　republican　form　of　government　was　early　established。　　　　　In　France；　on　the　other　hand；　the　introduction　of　a　great　mercenary　army；　during　the　administration　of　Cardinal　Richelieu；　which　was　necessary　for　the　defence　of　the　country；　enabled　the　monarch　to　establish　a　despotical　power。　In　the　beginning　of　the　reign　of　Lewis　XIII　was　called　the　last　convention　of　the　states　general　which　has　ever　been　held　in　that　country：　and　the　monarch　has；　from　that　period；　been　accustomed　to　exercise　almost　all　the　different　powers　of　government。　Similar　effects　have　arisen　from　the　establishment　of　standing　forces　in　most　of　the　great　kingdoms　of　Europe。　　　　　The　fortunate　situation　of　Great　Britain；　after　the　accession　of　James　I；　gave　her　little　to　fear　from　any　foreign　invasion；　and　superseded　the　necessity　of　maintaining　a　standing　army；　when　the　service　of　the　feudal　militia　had　gone　into　disuse。　The　weakness　and　bigotry　of　her　monarchs；　at　that　period；　prevented　them　from　employing　the　only　expedient　capable　of　securing　an　absolute　authority。　Charles　I　saw　the　power　exercised；　about　his　time；　by　the　other　princes　of　Europe；　but　he　did　not　discover　the　means　by　which　it　was　obtained。　He　seem　to　have　been　so　much　convinced　of　his　divine　indefeasible　right　as；　at　first；　to　think　that　no　force　was　necessary；　and　afterwards；　that　every　sort　of　duplicity　was　excuseable；　in　support　of　it。　When　at　the　point　of　a　rupture　with　his　parliament；　he　had　no　military　force　upon　which　he　could　depend；　and　he　was　therefore　obliged　to　yield　to　the　growing　power　of　the　commons。　　　　　The　boldness　and　dexterity；　joined　to　the　want　of　public　spirit；　and　the　perfidy　of　Oliver　Cromwell；　rendered　abortive　the　measures　of　that　party；　of　which　he　obtained　the　direction；　but　the　blood　that　had　been　shed；　and　the　repeated　efforts　that　were　made　by　the　people　in　defence　of　their　privileges；　cherished　and　spread　the　love　of　liberty；　and　at　last　produced　a　popular　government；　after　the　best　model；　perhaps；　which　is　practicable　in　an　extensive　country。　　　　　Many　writers　appear　to　take　pleasure　in　remarking　that；　as　the　love　of　liberty　is　natural　to　man；　it　is　to　be　found　in　the　greatest　perfection　among　barbarians；　and　is　apt　to　be　impaired　according　as　people　make　progress　in　civilization　and　in　the　arts　of　life。　That　mankind；　in　the　state　of　mere　savages；　are　in　great　measure　unacquainted　with　government；　and　unaccustomed　to　any　sort　of　constraint；　is　sufficiently　evident。　But　their　independence；　in　that　case；　is　owing　to　the　wretchedness　of　their　circumstances；　which　afford　nothing　that　can　tempt　any　one　man　to　become　subject　to　another。　The　moment　they　have　quitted　this　primitive　situation；　and；　by　endeavouring　to　supply　their　natural　wants；　have　been　led　to　accumulate　property；　they　are　presented　with　very　different　motives　of　action；　and　acquire　a　new　set　of　habits　and　principles。　In　those　rude　ages　when　the　inhabitants　of　the　earth　are　divided　into　tribes　of　shepherds；　or　of　husbandmen；　the　usual　distribution　of　property　renders　the　bulk　of　the　people　dependent　upon　a　few　chiefs；　to　whom　fidelity　and　submission　becomes　the　principal　point　of　honour；　and　makes　a　distinguishing　part　of　the　national　character。　The　ancient　Germans；　whose　high　notions　of　freedom　have　been　the　subject　of　many　a　well…turned　period；　were　accustomed；　as　we　learn　from　Tacitus；　to　stake　their　persons　upon　the　issue　of　a　game　of　hazard；　and　after　an　unlucky　turn　of　fortune；　to　yield　themselves　up　to　a　voluntary　servitude。　Where…ever　men　of　inferior　condition　are　enabled　to　live　in　affluence　by　their　own　industry；　and；　in　procuring　their　livelihood；　have　little　occasion　to　court　the　favour　of　their　superiors；　there　we　may　expect　that　ideas　of　liberty　will　be　universally　diffused。　This　happy　arrangement　of　things；　is　naturally　produced　by　commerce　and　manufactures；　but　it　would　be　as　vain　to　look　for　it　in　the　uncultivated　parts　of　the　world；　as　to　look　for　the　independent　spirit　of　an　English　waggoner；　among　persons　of　low　rank　in　the　highlands　of　Scotland。　Chapter　VI　The　authority　of　a　Master　over　his　Servants　Section　I　The　condition　of　servants　in　the　primitive　ages　of　the　world　　　　　In　the　foregoing　chapters　we　have　surveyed　the　principal　distinctions　of　rank　which　occur　among　the　free　inhabitants　of　a　country；　and　have　endeavoured　to　mark　the　progress　of　society；　with　regard　to　the　power　of　the　husband；　the　father；　and　the　civil　magistrate。　It　may　now　be　proper　to　consider　the　state　of　the　servants；　and　to　observe　the　degrees　of　authority　which　the　laws　and　custom　of　different　nations　have　bestowed　upon　the　master。　　　　　From　the　situation　of　mankind　in　rude　and　barbarous　countries；　we　may　easily　conceive　in　what　manner　any　one　person　is；　at　first；　reduced　to　be　the　servant　of　another。　Before　the　manners　of　men　are　civilized；　and　a　regular　government　has　been　established；　persons　of　small　fortune　are　subject　to　great　inconveniencies　from　the　disorder　and　violence　of　the　times；　and　are　frequently　obliged　to　solicit　the　assistance　and　protection　of　some　powerful　neighbour；　by　whom　they　are　entertained　in　the　station　of　vassals　or　military　dependents。　But　those　who；　from　their　idleness；　have　acquired　nothing；　or　who；　by　accident；　have　been　deprived　of　their　possessions；　are　necessarily　exposed　to　much　more　severe　calamities。　They　have　no　room　or　encouragement　for　the　exercise　of　those　beneficial　trades　and　professions；　the　effects　of　luxury　and　refinement；　by　which；　in　a　polished　nation；　a　multitude　of　people　are　enabled　to　live　in　a　comfortable　manner。　In　many　cases；　therefore；　they　are　under　the　necessity　of　serving　some　opulent　person；　who；　upon　account　of　their　labour；　is　willing　to　maintain　them；　and　as　they　are　entirely　dependent　upon　him　for　their　subsistence；　they　are　engaged；　according　to　his　circumstances；　and　according　to　the　qualifications　they　possess；　in　all　the　mean　and　servile　occupations　which　may　be　requisite　for　the　convenience　and　support　of　his　family。　　　　　In　early　ages；　when　neighbouring　tribes　or　nations　are　almost　continually　engaged　in　mutual　hostilities；　it　frequently　happens　that　one　of　the　parties；　is　totally　reduced　under　the　power　of　another。　The　use　that　is　made　of　a　victory；　upon　these　occasions；　is　such　as　might　be　expected　from　a　fierce　and　barbarous　people；　who　have　too　little　experience　or　reflection　to　discover　the　utility　of　carrying　on　the　trade　of　war　with　some　degree　of　humanity。　The　vanquished　are　often　put　to　death；　in　order　to　gratify　a　spirit　of　revenge；　or；　if　they　are　spared；　it　is　only　from　the　consideration　that　their　future　labour　and　service　will　be　of　more　advantage　to　the　conqueror。　As　in　those　times　every　individual　goes　out　to　battle　at　his　own　charges；　so　he　claims　a　proportional　share　of　the　profits　arising　from　the　expedition；　and　of　consequence　obtains　the　absolute　disposal　of　the　captives　whom　he　has　procured　by　his　valour；　or　who；　in　a　division　of　the　booty；　are　bestowed　upon　him　as　the　reward　of　his　merit。　　　　　This　ancient　acquisition　of　servants　by　captivity　gave　rise；　in　subsequent　periods；　to　another　method　of　acquiring　them；　by　the　sentence　of　a　judge。　In　the　primitive　state　of　society；　the　public　was　not　invested　with　sufficient　power　to　punish　the　crimes　that　were　committed；　and　when　a　difference　arose　between　individuals；　the　injured　Party　had　frequently　no　other　way　of　procuring　redress　than　by　making　war　upon　the　offender；　and　reducing　him　into　captivity。　In　more　civilized　ages；　when　the　magistrate　was　enabled　to　restrain　these　disorders；　he　sometimes　afforded　the　same　redress　by　his　own　authority；　and　assigned　the　labour　and　service　of　the　criminal　as　an　indemnification　to　the　sufferer　for　the　loss　he　had　sustained。　　　　　By　these　three　methods；　by　captivity；　by　the　voluntary　submission　of