the origin of the distinction of ranks-第39章

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een　adopted　in　most　parts　of　the　world；　by　nations　in　the　same　period　of　their　advancement。　The　impropriety；　however；　of　giving　a　permission　to　these　exactions；　which　tend　to　influence　the　decisions　of　a　judge；　to　render　him　active　in　stirring　up　law…suits；　and　in　multiplying　the　form　of　his　procedure；　in　order　to　increase　his　perquisites；　these　pernicious　consequences　with　which　it　is　inseparably　connected；　could　not　fail　to　attract　the　notice　of　a　polished　people；　and　at　length　produced　the　more　perfect　plan　of　providing　for　the　maintenance　of　judges　by　the　appointment　of　a　fixed　salary　in　place　of　their　former　precarious　emoluments。　　　　　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　these　establishments；　of　such　mighty　importance；　and　of　so　extensive　a　nature；　must　be　the　source　of　great　expense　to　the　public。　In　those　early　periods；　when　the　inhabitants　of　a　country　are　in　a　condition　to　defend　themselves；　and　when　their　internal　disputes　are　decided　by　judges　who　claim　no　reward　for　their　interpositions；　or　at　least　no　reward　from　government；　few　regulations　are　necessary　with　respect　to　the　public　revenue。　The　king　is　enabled　to　maintain　his　family；　and　to　support　his　dignity；　by　the　rents　of　his　own　estate；　and；　in　ordinary　cases；　he　has　no　farther　demand。　But　when　the　disuse　of　the　ancient　militia　has　been　succeeded　by　the　practice　of　hiring　troops；　these　original　funds　are　no　longer　sufficient；　and　other　resources　must　be　provided　in　order　to　supply　the　deficiency。　By　the　happy　disposition　of　human　events；　the　very　circumstance　that　occasions　this　difficulty　appears　also　to　suggest　the　means　of　removing　it。　When　the　bulk　of　a　people　become　unwilling　to　serve　in　war；　they　are　naturally　disposed　to　offer　a　composition　in　order　to　be　excused　from　that　ancient　personal　service　which；　from　long　custom；　it　is　thought　they　are　bound　to　perform。　Compositions　of　this　nature　are　levied　at　first；　in　consequence　of　an　agreement　with　each　individual：　to　avoid　the　trouble　arising　from　a　multiplicity　of　separate　transactions；　they　are　afterwards　paid　in　common　by　the　inhabitants　of　particular　districts；　and　at　length　give　rise　to　a　general　assessment；　the　first　considerable　taxation　that　is　commonly　introduced　into　a　country。　　　　　If　this　tax　could　always　be　laid　upon　the　people　in　proportion　to　their　circumstances；　it　might　easily　be　augmented　in　such　a　manner　as　to　defray　all　the　expenses　of　government。　But　the　difficulty　of　ascertaining　the　wealth　of　individuals　makes　it　impossible　to　push　the　assessment　to　a　great　height；　without　being　guilty　of　oppression；　and　renders　it　proper　that　other　methods　of　raising　money　should　be　employed　to　answer　the　increasing　demands　of　the　society。　In　return　for　the　protection　which　is　given　to　merchants　in　carrying　their　goods　from　one　country　to　another；　it　is　apprehended　that　some　recompence　is　due　to　the　government；　and　that　certain　duties　may　be　levied　upon　the　exportation　and　importation　of　commodities。　The　security　enjoyed　by　tradesmen　and　manufacturers；　from　the　care　and　vigilance　of　the　magistrate；　is　held　also　to　lay　a　foundation　for　similar　exactions　upon　the　retail　of　goods；　and　upon　the　inland　trade　of　a　nation。　Thus　the　payment　of　customs；　and　of　what；　in　a　large　sense；　may　be　called　excise；　is　introduced　and　gradually　extended。　　　　　It　is　not　proposed　to　enter　into　a　comparison　of　these　different　taxes；　or　to　consider　the　several　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　each。　Their　general　effects　in　altering　the　political　constitution　of　a　state　are　more　immediately　the　object　of　the　present　enquiry。　With　respect　to　this　point；　it　merits　attention　that；　as　the　sovereign　claims　a　principal　share　at　least；　in　the　nomination　of　public　officers；　as　he　commonly　obtains　the　chief　direction　in　collecting　and　disposing　of　the　revenue　which　is　raised　upon　their　account；　he　is　enabled　thereby　to　give　subsistence　to　a　great　number　of　persons；　who；　in　times　of　faction　and　disorder；　will　naturally　adhere　to　his　party；　and　whose　interest；　in　ordinary　cases；　will　be　employed　to　support　and　to　extend　his　authority。　These　circumstances　contribute　to　strengthen　the　hands　of　the　monarch；　to　undermine　and　destroy　every　opposite　power；　and　to　increase　the　general　bias　towards　the　absolute　dominion　of　a　single　person。　Section　II　Other　circumstances；　which　contribute　to　advance　the　privileges　of　the　people　　　　　After　viewing　those　effects　of　opulence　and　the　progress　of　arts　which　favour　the　interest　of　the　crown；　let　us　turn　our　attention　to　other　circumstances；　proceeding　from　the　same　source；　that　have　an　opposite　tendency；　and　are　manifestly　conducive　to　a　popular　form　of　government。　　　　　In　that　early　period　of　agriculture　when　manufactures　are　unknown；　persons　who　have　no　landed　estate　are　usually　incapable　of　procuring　subsistence　otherwise　than　by　serving　some　opulent　neighbour；　by　whom　they　are　employed；　according　to　their　qualifications；　either　in　military　serVice；　or　in　the　several　branches　of　husbandry。　Men　of　great　fortune　find　that　the　entertaining　a　multitude　of　servants；　for　either　of　these　purposes；　is　highly　conducive　both　to　their　dignity　and　their　personal　security；　and　in　a　rude　age；　when　people　are　strangers　to　luxury；　and　are　maintained　from　the　simple　productions　of　the　earth；　the　number　of　retainers　who　may　be　supported　upon　any　particular　estate　is　proportionably　great。　　　　　In　this　situation；　persons　of　low　rank；　have　no　opportunity　of　acquiring　an　affluent　fortune；　or　of　raising　themselves　to　superior　stations；　and　remaining　for　ages　in　a　state　of　dependence；　they　naturally　contract　such　dispositions　and　habits　are　as　sited　to　their　circumstances。　They　acquire　a　sacred　veneration　for　the　person　of　their　master；　and　are　taught　to　pay　an　unbounded　submission　to　his　authority。　They　are　proud　of　that　servile　obedience　by　which　they　seem　to　exalt　his　dignity；　and　consider　it　as　their　duty　to　sacrifice　their　lives　and　their　possessions　in　order　to　promote　his　interest；　or　even　to　gratify　his　capricious　humour。　　　　　But　when　the　arts　begin　to　be　cultivated　in　a　country；　the　labouring　part　of　the　inhabitants　are　enabled　to　procure　subsistence　in　a　different　manner。　They　are　led　to　make　proficiency　in　particular　trades　and　professions；　and；　instead　of　becoming　servants　to　any　body；　they　often　find　it　more　profitable　to　work　at　their　own　charges；　and　to　vend　the　product　of　their　labour。　As　in　this　situation　their　gain　depends　upon　a　variety　of　customers；　they　have　little　to　fear　from　the　displeasure　of　any　single　person；　and；　according　to　the　good　quality　and　cheapness　of　the　commodity　which　they　have　to　dispose　of；　they　may　commonly　be　assured　of　success　in　their　business。　　　　　The　farther　a　nation　advances　in　opulence　and　refinement；　it　has　occasion　to　employ　a　greater　number　of　merchants；　of　tradesmen　and　artificers；　and　as　the　lower　people；　in　general；　become　thereby　more　independent　in　their　circumstances；　they　begin　to　exert　those　sentiments　of　liberty　which　are　natural　to　the　mind　of　man；　and　which　necessity　alone　is　able　to　subdue。　In　proportion　as　they　have　less　need　of　the　favour　and　patronage　of　the　great；　they　are　at　less　pains　to　procure　it；　and　their　application　is　more　uniformly　directed　to　acquire　those　talents　which　are　useful　in　the　exercise　of　their　employments。　The　impressions　which　they　received　in　their　former　state　of　servitude　are　therefore　gradually　obliterated；　and　give　place　to　habits　of　a　different　nature。　The　long　attention　and　perseverance；　by　which　they　become　expert　and　skilful　in　their　business；　render　them　ignorant　of　those　decorum　and　of　that　politeness　which　arises　from　the　intercourse　of　society；　and　that　vanity　which　was　formerly　discovered　in　magnifying　the　power　of　a　chief；　is　now　equally　displayed　in　sullen　indifference；　or　in　contemptuous　and　insolent　behaviour　to　persons　of　superior　rank　and　station。　　　　　While；　from　these　causes；　people　of　low　rank　are　gradually　advancing　towards　a　state　of　independence；　the　influence　derived　from　wealth　is　diminished　in　the　same　proportion。　From　the　improvement　of　arts　and　manufactures；　the　ancient　simplicity　of　manners　is　in　a　great　measure　destroyed；　and　the　proprietor　of　a　landed　estate；　instead　of　consuming　its　produce　in　hiring　retainers；　is　oblige