the origin of the distinction of ranks-第35章

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t　obedience；　and　performing　that　service；　which　a　superior　was　accustomed　to　demand　from　his　vassals。　From　the　various　disputes　which　arose；　and　the　accidental　combinations　that　were　formed　among　the　great　families；　the　nobles　were　all；　in　their　turns；　reduced　to　difficulties　from　which　they　were　forced　to　extricate　themselves　by　the　like　compliances；　and　the　sovereign；　who　laid　hold　of　every　opportunity　to　extend　his　influence；　established　his　superiority　over　the　barons　by　the　same　means　which　they　themselves　had　formerly　employed　for　subjecting　the　proprietors　of　smaller　estates。　　　　　Thus；　by　degrees；　the　feudal　system　was　completed　in　most　of　the　countries　of　Europe。　The　whole　of　a　kingdom　came　to　be　united　in　one　great　fief；　of　which　the　king　was　the　superior；　or　lord　paramount；　having　in　some　measure　the　property　of　all　the　land　within　his　dominions。　The　great　barons　became　his　immediate　vassals；　and；　according　to　the　tenure　by　which　they　held　their　estates；　were　subject　to　his　jurisdiction；　and　liable　to　him　in　services　of　the　same　nature　with　those　which　they　exacted　from　their　own　retainers　or　inferior　military　tenants。　The　precise　period　when　this　revolution　was　finally　accomplished；　as　in　most　other　gradual　changes　which　happen　in　a　country；　is　involved　in　doubt　and　uncertainty。　From　a　comparison　of　the　opinions　of　different　authors　who　have　written　upon　this　subject；　and　of　the　facts　which　they　bring　in　support　of　their　several　conjectures；　it　appears　most　reasonable　to　conclude；　that　in　France　the　great　barons　continued　their　allodial　possessions　during　the　kings　of　the　first　and　second　race；　and　about　the　beginning　of　the　Capetian　line　were；　for　the　most　part；　reduced　into　a　state　of　feudal　subjection　to　the　monarch。（10*）　　　　　In　England　it　would　seem　that；　in　like　manner；　the　nobles　maintained　their　independence　during　the　time　of　the　Saxon　princes；　and　were　reduced　to　be　the　vassals　of　the　crown　in　the　reign　of　William　the　Conqueror。（11*）　　　　　This　opinion　is　confirmed　by　observing　the　changes　which；　from　those　two　periods；　began　to　take　place　in　the　government　of　these　kingdoms。　From　the　reign　of　Hugh　Capet；　the　dominions　of　France；　appear　more　firmly　united；　they　were　no　longer　split　upon　the　death　of　the　sovereign；　and　shared　among　his　children；　the　monarch　was　from　this　period　capable　of　acting　with　more　vigour；　and　continued　to　extend　his　prerogative　till　the　reign　of　Lewis　XI；　who　exercised　the　power　of　imposing　taxes；　as　well　as　of　making　laws　independent　of　the　convention　of　estates。　The　same　progress；　though　with　some　accidental　interruptions　may　be　traced　in　England；　from　the　Norman　conquest　to　the　accession　of　the　Tudor　family；　under　which　the　powers　and　prerogatives　of　the　crown　were　exalted　to　a　height　that　seemed　equally　incompatible　with　the　rights　of　the　nobility　and　the　freedom　of　the　people。　　　　　The　authors；　who　have　written　upon　the　feudal　law；　seem　to　have　generally　considered　that　system　as　peculiar　to　the　modern　nations　of　Europe；　and　from　what　has　been　observed　above；　it　appears　evident　that　the　circumstances　of　the　Gothic　nations；　who　settled　in　the　western　provinces　of　Rome；　rendered　such　a　set　of　regulations　more　especially　useful　for　the　defence　and　security　of　the　people。　It　is　highly　probable　that；　from　those　parts　of　Europe　where　the　feudal　law　was　first　established；　it　was　in　some　degree　communicated；　by　the　intercourse　of　the　inhabitants　and　the　force　of　example；　to　some　of　the　neighbouring　countries。　But　it　merits　particular　attention　that　the　same　sort　of　policy；　though　not　brought　to　the　same　perfection　as　in　Europe；　is　to　be　found　in　many　distant　parts　of　the　world；　where　it　never　could　be　derived　from　imitation；　and　perhaps　there　is　reason　to　think　that　similar　institutions；　by　which　small　bodies　of　men　are　incorporated　in　larger　societies　under　a　single　leader；　and　afterwards　linked　together　in　one　great　community；　have　been　suggested　in　every　extensive　kingdom；　founded　upon　the　original　association　of　many　rude　tribes　or　families。　　　　　The　kingdom　of　Congo；　upon　the　southern　coast　of　Africa；　is　divided　into　many　large　districts　or　provinces；　the　inhabitants　of　which　appear　to　have　made　some　progress　in　agriculture。　Each　of　these　districts　comprehends　a　multitude　of　small　lordships；　which　are　said　to　have　been　formerly　independent；　but　which　are　now　united　together；　and　reduced　under　a　single　chief　or　governor；　who　exercises　absolute　authority　over　them。　The　great　lords；　or　governors　of　provinces；　are　in　like　manner　dependent　upon　the　king；　and　owe　him　the　payment　of　certain　annual　duties。　This　monarch　is　understood　to　have　an　unlimited　power　over　the　goods　of　all　his　subjects；　he　is　the　proprietor　of　all　the　lands　in　the　kingdom；　which　return　to　the　crown　upon　the　death　of　the　possessors；　and；　according　to　the　arbitrary　will　of　the　prince；　are　either　continued　in　the　same；　or　bestowed　upon　a　different　family。　All　the　inhabitants　are　bound　to　appear　in　the　field　whenever　they　are　required　by　the　sovereign　who　is　able　in　a　short　time　to　raise　a　prodigious　army　upon　any　sudden　emergency。　Every　governor　has　a　judicial　power　in　his　own　district；　and　from　his　sentences　there　lies　an　appeal　to　the　king；　who　is　the　supreme　judge　of　the　nation。　Similar　accounts　are　given　of　the　constitution　in　the　neighbouring　kingdoms　of　Angola；　Loango；　and　Benin。　　　　　The　same　form　of　government　may　be　discovered　in　several　parts　of　the　East　Indies；　where　many　great　lords；　who　have　acquired　extensive　dominions；　are　often　reduced　into　a　sort　of　feudal　dependence　upon　a　single　person。　　　　　Among　the　natives　of　Indostan；　there　are　a　great　number　of　families　who　have　been　immemorially　trained　up　to　arms；　and　who　enjoy　a　superior　rank　to　most　of　the　other　inhabitants。　They　form　a　militia　capable　of　enduring　much　hardship；　and　wanting　nothing　to　make　good　soldiers　but　order　and　discipline。　These　hereditary　warriors　are　subject　to　the　authority　of　chiefs；　or　Rajahs；　from　whom　they　receive　lands；　upon　condition　of　their　performing　military　service。　It　would　seem　that　those　different　families　were　originally　independent　of　each　other。　By　degrees　however　many　of　the　poorer　sort　have　become　subordinate　to　their　opulent　neighbours；　and　are　obliged　to　serve　them　in　war　in　order　to　obtain　a　livelihood。　In　like　manner　the　leaders　of　more　wealthy　families　have　been　gradually　subdued　by　a　certain　Rajah；　who　mounted　the　throne；　and　whose　influence　became　more　and　more　extensive。　This　in　all　probability　gave　rise　to　the　political　constitution　at　present　established　in　that　country。　The　Rajahs；　or　nobility；　are　now　for　the　most　part　retained　by　the　Great　Mogul　in　a　situation　resembling　that　of　the　crown　vassals　in　Europe。　At　the　same　time　there　are　some　of　those　chiefs　who　still　maintain　an　independency　even　in　the　heart　of　the　empire。　In　the　reign　of　Aureng…zebe；　there　were　about　an　hundred；　dispersed　over　the　whole　country；　several　of　whom　were　capable　of　bringing　into　the　field　25；000　horse；　better　troops　than　those　of　the　monarch。　　　　　In　the　kingdom　of　Pegu；　which　was　formerly　an　independent　monarchy；　the　king　is　said　to　have　been　the　sole　heir　of　all　the　landed　estates　of　his　subjects。　The　nobility　or　chiefs　had　lands　and　towns　assigned　them；　which　they　held　of　the　crown；　upon　condition　of　their　maintaining　a　certain　number　of　troops　in　time　of　peace；　and　bringing　them　into　the　field　in　case　of　a　war。　Besides　these　military　services；　they　were　also　bound　to　the　performance　of　several　kinds　of　work；　which　the　sovereign　rigorously　exacted　from　them；　in　token　of　their　subjection。　This　country　is　now　annexed　to　the　kingdom　of　Ava；　in　which；　as　well　as　in　that　of　Laos　and　of　Siam；　the　same　regulations　appear　to　be　established。　　　　　Travellers　who　make　observations　on　the　Malais　＇says　the　judicious　M。　Le　Poivre＇　are　astonished　to　find；　in　the　centre　of　Asia；　under　the　scorching　climate　of　the　line；　the　laws；　the　manners；　the　customs；　and　the　prejudices　of　the　ancient　inhabitants　of　the　north　of　Europe。　The　Malais　are　governed　by　feudal　laws；　that　capricious　system；　conceived　for　the　defence　of　the　liberty　of　a　few　against　the　tyranny　of　one；　while　the　multitude　is　subjected　to　slavery　and　oppression。　　　　　A　chief；　who　has　the　title