the origin of the distinction of ranks-第32章

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of　tribes；　or　separate　families；　united　in　one　kingdom；　and　to　the　wideness　of　the　country　over　which　they　were　scattered；　the　union　between　them　was　loose　and　feeble。　Every　proprietor　of　land　maintained　a　sort　of　independence；　and　notwithstanding　the　confederacy　of　which　he　was　a　member；　assumed　the　privilege　of　engaging　in　private　wars　at　pleasure。　From　the　violent　disposition　to　theft　and　rapine　which　prevailed　in　that　age；　neighbouring　proprietors；　when　not　occupied　in　a　joint　expedition；　were　tempted　to　commit　depredations　upon　each　other；　and　mutual　injuries　between　the　same　individuals　being　often　repeated；　became　the　source　of　family　quarrels；　which　were　prosecuted　with　implacable　animosity　and　rancour。　There　was　no　sufficient　authority　in　the　public　for　repressing　these　disorders。　If；　upon　great　provocation；　the　king　had　been　excited　to　humble　and　punish　an　opulent　baron；　he　found　in　many　cases　that　the　whole　force　of　the　crown　was　requisite　for　that　purpose；　and　by　the　hazard　and　difficulty　of　the　attempt；　was　commonly　taught　to　be　cautious；　for　the　future；　of　involving　himself　in　such　disputes。　　　　　As　individuals　therefore；　in　those　times　of　violence　and　confusion；　were　continually　exposed　to　injustice　and　oppression；　and　received　little　or　no　protection　from　government；　they　found　it　necessary　to　be　constantly　attentive　to　their　own　safety。　It　behooved　every　baron；　not　only　to　support　his　own　personal　dignity；　and　to　maintain　his　own　rights　against　the　attacks　of　all　his　neighbours；　but　also　to　protect　his　retainers　and　dependents；　and　he　was　led；　upon　that　account；　to　regulate　the　state　of　his　barony　in　such　a　manner；　as　to　preserve　the　union　of　all　its　members；　to　secure　their　fidelity　and　service；　and　to　keep　them　always　in　a　posture　of　defence。　With　this　view；　when　his　relations；　who　had　hitherto　lived　about　his　house；　were　gradually　permitted　to　have　families　of　their　own；　he　did　not　bestow　upon　them　separate　estates；　which　would　have　rendered　them　independent；　but　he　assigned　them　such　portions　of　land　as　were　thought　sufficient　for　their　maintenance；　to　be　held　upon　condition；　that　whenever　they　were　called　upon；　they　should　be　ready　to　serve　him　in　war；　and　that；　in　all　their　controversies；　they　should　submit　to　his　jurisdiction。　These　grants　were　made　for　no　limited　time；　but　might　be　resumed　at　pleasure；　so　that　though　the　master　was　not　likely　without　some　extraordinary　offence；　to　deprive　his　kinsmen　of　their　possessions；　yet　his　power　in　this　respect　being　indisputable；　it　could　hardly　fail　to　keep　them　in　awe；　and　to　produce　an　implicit　obedience　to　his　commands。　　　　　The　military　tenants；　supported　in　this　manner；　were　denominated　vassals；　and　the　land　held　by　any　person　upon　such　terms　has　been　called；　a　fief；　though　many　writers；　in　order　to　distinguish　it　from　what　afterwards　went　under　the　same　name；　have　termed　it　a　benefice。　　　　　When　the　estate　of　a　baron　became　extensive；　the　slaves；　by　whom　it　was　cultivated；　were　likewise　sent　to　a　distance　from　the　house　of　their　master；　and　were　placed　in　separate　families；　each　of　which　obtained　the　management　of　a　particular　farm；　but　that　they　might；　in　those　disorderly　times；　be　more　easily　protected　by　the　owner；　and　might　be　in　a　condition　to　defend　and　assist　one　another；　a　number　of　them　were　usually　collected　together；　and　composed　a　little　village。　Hence　they　received　the　appellation　of　villani；　or　villains。　　　　　The　whole　of　a　kingdom　was　thus　divided　into　a　number　of　baronies；　of　greater　or　smaller　extent；　and　regulated　nearly　in　the　same　manner。　The　king　was　at　the　head　of　a　barony　similar　in　every　respect　to　those　of　his　subjects；　though　commonly　larger；　and　therefore　capable　of　maintaining　a　greater　number　of　vassals　and　dependents。　But　the　land　which　belonged　to　the　barons；　was　held　in　the　same　independent　manner　with　that　which　belonged　to　the　king。　As　each　of　those　warlike　chiefs　had　purchased　his　demesnes　by　his　own　activity　and　valour；　he　claimed　the　absolute　enjoyment　and　disposal　of　them　together　with　the　privilege　of　transmitting　them　to　his　posterity；　and　as　he　had　not　been　indebted　to　the　crown　for　his　original　possession；　neither　was　he　obliged　to　secure　the　continuance　of　it；　by　serving　the　king　in　war；　or　by　submitting　to　his　jurisdiction。　Their　property；　therefore；　was　such　as　has　been　called　allodial；　in　contradiction　to　that　feudal　tenure　enjoyed　by　their　respective　military　tenants。（5*）　　　　　These　peculiarities；　in　the　state　of　the　kingdoms　which　were　formed　upon　the　ruins　of　the　Roman　empire；　had　a　visible　effect　upon　their　constitution　of　government。　According　to　the　authority　possessed　by　the　barons；　each　over　his　own　barony；　and　their　independence　with　respect　to　each　other；　and　with　respect　to　the　king；　was　their　joint　power　and　influence　over　that　great　community　of　which　they　were　members。　The　supreme　powers　of　government　in　every　kingdom　were；　therefore；　exercised　by　an　assembly　composed　of　all　those　proprietors；　and　commonly　summoned　by　the　king　on　every　great　emergency。　　　　　Two　meetings　of　this　great　council　appear　to　have　been　regularly　held　in　a　year；　for　the　ordinary　dispatch　of　business；　the　first；　after　the　seed…time；　to　determine　their　military　operations　during　the　summer；　the　second；　before　the　harvest；　in　order　to　divide　the　booty。　In　those　meetings　it　was　customary　also　to　rectify　abuses　by　introducing　new　regulations；　and　to　decide　those　law…suits　which　had　arisen　between　independent　proprietors　of　land。　Such　was　the　business　of　the　early　parliaments　in　France；　of　the　Cortes　in　Spain；　of　the　Wittenagemote　in　England；　and　in　each　of　the　feudal　kingdom；　we　discover　evident　marks　of　a　national　council；　constituted　in　the　same　manner；　and　invested　with　similar　privileges。（6*）　　　　　These　observations　may　serve　to　show　the　general　aspect　and　complexion　of　that　political　constitution　which　results　from　the　first　union　of　rude　tribes；　or　small　independent　societies。　The　government　resulting　from　that　union　is　apt　to　be　of　a　mixed　nature；　in　which　there　is　a　nobility　distinguished　from　the　people；　and　a　king　exalted　above　the　nobles。　But　though；　according　to　that　system；　the　peculiar　situation　of　different　nations　may　have　produced　some　variety　in　the　powers　belonging　to　these　different　orders；　yet；　unless　in　very　poor　states；　the　influence　acquired　by　the　nobles　has　commonly　been　such　as　to　occasion　a　remarkable　prevalence　of　aristocracy。　Section　II　The　natural　progress　of　government　in　a　rude　kingdom　　　　　The　continued　union　of　rude　tribes；　or　small　societies；　has　a　tendency　to　produce　a　great　alteration　in　the　political　system　of　a　people。　The　same　circumstances；　by　which；　in　a　single　tribe；　a　chief　is　gradually　advanced　over　the　different　heads　of　families；　contribute；　in　a　kingdom；　to　exalt　the　sovereign　above　the　chiefs；　and　to　extend　his　authority　throughout　the　whole　of　his　dominions。　　　　　As　the　king　is　placed　at　the　head　of　the　nation；　and　acts　the　most　conspicuous　part　in　all　their　public　measures；　his　high　rank　and　station　reflect　upon　him　a　degree　of　splendour；　which　is　apt　to　obscure　the　lustre　of　every　inferior　chief；　and　the　longer　he　has　remained　in　a　situation　where　he　excites　the　admiration　and　respect　of　the　people；　it　is　to　be　supposed　that　their　habits　of　submission　to　him　will　be　the　more　confirmed。　　　　　From　the　opulence；　too；　of　the　sovereign；　which　is　generally　much　greater　than　that　of　any　other　member　of　the　community；　as　well　as　from　the　nature　of　his　office；　he　has　more　power　to　reward　and　protect　his　friends；　and　to　punish　or　depress　those　who　have　become　the　objects　of　his　resentment　or　displeasure。　The　consideration　of　this　must　operate　powerfully　upon　individuals；　as　a　motive　to　court　his　favour；　and；　of　consequence；　to　support　his　interest。　It　is　therefore　to　be　concluded　that；　from　the　natural　course　of　things；　the　immediate　followers　and　dependents　of　the　king　will　be　constantly　increasing；　and　those　of　every　inferior　leader　will　be　diminishing　in　the　same　proportion。　　　　　In　a　government　so　constituted　as　to　introduce　a　continual　jealousy　between　the　crown　and　the　nobles；　it　must　frequently　happen　that　the　latter；　instead　of　prosecuting　a　uniform　plan　for　aggrandizing　their　own　order；　should