the origin of the distinction of ranks-第30章
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ge which belongs to their counsel rather than with any prescribed right to command。' Ibid。 ？11。 'At this assembly it is also permissible to lay accusations and to bring capital charges。 The nature of the death penalty differs according to the offence： traitors and deserters are hung from trees； cowards and poor fighters and notorious evil…livers are plunged into the mud of marshes with a hurdle on their heads。。。。 At the same gatherings are selected chiefs； who administer law through the cantons and villages： each of them has one hundred assessors from the people to be his responsible advisers。' Ibid。 ？12。 'On the declaration of war a high command is set up and invested with powers over life and death； but in peace…time there is no central government。 Justice is administered and disputes settled by various local chiefs。。。。 When a chieftain formally proclaims his intention of leading a raid； he calls for volunteers： those who approve the project and trust the man himself stand up and promise their support amid loud applause from the whole assembly。 Any one who goes back on that promise is considered a deserter and a traitor； and no one ever trusts him again。' Caesar； de bell。 Gall。 lib。 6； ？23。 Chapter IV The authority of a Sovereign； and of subordinate officers； over a society composed of different tribes or villages Section I The constitution of government arising from the union of different tribes or villages The improvement of agriculture； as it increases the quantity of provisions； and renders particular tribes more numerous and flourishing； so it obliges them at length to send out colonies to a distance； who occupy new seats wherever they can find a convenient situation； and are formed into separate villages； after the model of those with which they are acquainted。 Thus； in proportion as a country is better cultivated； it comes to be inhabited by a greater number of distinct societies； whether derived from the same or from a different original； agreeing in their manners； and resembling each other in their institutions and customs。 These different communities being frequently at war； and being exposed to continual invasions from their neighbours； are in many cases determined； by the consideration of their mutual interest； to unite against their common enemies； and to form a variety of combinations； which； from the influence of particular circumstances； are more or less permanent。 Having found the advantage of joining their forces in one expedition； they are naturally disposed to continue the like association in another； and by degrees are encouraged to enter into a general alliance。 The intercourse which people； in such a situation； have maintained in war will not be entirely dissolved even in time of peace； and though the different villages should be originally strangers to each other； yet； having many opportunities of assembling in their military enterprises； they cannot fail to contract an acquaintance； which will become an inducement to their future correspondence。 They have frequent opportunities of meeting in their common sports and diversions； the leading men entertain one another with rustic hospitality and magnificence： intermarriages begin to take place between their respective families； and the various connexions of society are gradually multiplied and extended。 An alliance for mutual defence and security is a measure suggested by such obvious views of expediency that it must frequently take place； not only among tribes of husbandmen； but also among those of shepherds； and even of mere savages。 Many instances of it are； accordingly； to be found in Tartary； upon the coast of Guinea； in the history of the ancient Germans； and among the Indians of America。 But such alliances are not likely to produce a permanent union； until the populousness of a country has been increased by agriculture； and the inhabitants； in consequence of that employment； have taken up a fixed residence in the same neighbourhood。 From a confederacy of this kind； a very simple form of government is commonly established。 As every village； or separate community； is subjected to its own leader； their joint measures fall naturally under the direction of all those distinguished personages； whose frequent meeting and deliberation gives rise； in a short time； to a regular council； or senate； invested with a degree of power and authority corresponding to what each of its members has acquired over his own particular domestics and retainers。 The same considerations however which determine the individuals of a single tribe to be guided by a particular person in their smaller expeditions； must recommend a similar expedient in conducting a numerous army； composed of different clans； often disagreeing in their views； and little connected with each other。 While every chief has the conduct of his own dependents； it is found convenient that some one leader should be instructed with the supreme command of their united forces； and as that dignity is commonly bestowed upon the person who； by his opulence； is most capable of supporting it； he is frequently enabled to maintain it during life； and even in many cases to render it hereditary。 In this manner a great chief； or king； is placed at the head of a nation； and is permitted to assume the inspection and superintendence of what relates to its defence and security。 But； notwithstanding the rank and pre…eminence enjoyed by this primitive sovereign； it may easily be conceived that his authority will not be very considerable。 His advancement can hardy fail to excite the jealousy of chiefs unaccustomed to subordination； who will be disposed to take every opportunity of curbing his pretensions； and to allow him no higher prerogatives than are sufficient to answer the purposes for which he was created。 His interpositions； in matters of public concern； will depend very much upon times and circumstances； and being directed by no previous rules； will be frequently made in an irregular and desultory manner。 In a day of battle； when placed at the head of his army； he may venture； perhaps； to rule with a high hand； and it may be dangerous for any of his followers to disobey his orders； but upon other occasions his power is usually confined within a narrower compass； and frequently extends no further than to the members of his own clan。 After the conclusion of a military enterprise； when the other tribes have retired to their separate places of abode； they are in a great measure withdrawn from his influence； and are placed under the immediate jurisdiction and authority of the respective chiefs by whom they are protected。 As it is necessary that these leading men should give their consent to every public measure of importance； they are usually convened for that purpose by the king； who at the same time is accustomed to preside in all their deliberations。 Such； as far as can be collected from the scattered hints delivered by travellers； is the state of government in many rude kingdom； both upon the coast of Africa； or in those parts of Asia； where a number of distinct tribes or villages have been recently and imperfectly united。 In the Odyssey； Alcinous； king of the Pheacians； says expressly； 'There are twelve chiefs who share dominion in the kingdom； and I am the thirteenth。'（1*） He is accordingly obliged to call a council of his nobles； before he can venture to furnish Ulysses with a single ship； in order to transport him to his native country。 In the island of Ithaca； the power of the chiefs； who usually deliberated in council upon the affairs of the nation； is equally conspicuous。
'Twas silence all； at last Aegyptius spoke； Aegyptius； by his age and sorrows broke： Since great Ulysses sought the Phrygian plains； Within these walls inglorious silence reigns。 Say then； ye Peers！ by whose commands we meet？ Why here once more in solemn council sit？ Ye young； ye old； the weighty cause disclose： Arrives some message of invading foes？ Or say； does high necessity of state Inspire some patriot； and demand debate？ The present synod speak its author wise； A
