the origin of the distinction of ranks-第22章

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ave　no　occasion　to　acquire　any　separate　property；　but　depend　entirely　for　subsistence　upon　that　hereditary　estate；　of　which　he　is　the　sole　disposer　and　manager。　Their　situation；　however；　in　this；　as　well　as　in　many　other　respects；　is　greatly　altered　by　the　introduction　of　commerce　and　manufactures。　In　a　commercial　country；　a　great　part　of　the　inhabitants　are　employed　in　such　a　manner　as　tends　to　disperse　the　members　of　a　family；　and　often　requires　that　they　should　live　at　a　distance　from　one　another。　　　　　The　children；　at　an　early　period　of　life；　are　obliged　to　leave　their　home；　in　order　to　be　instructed　in　those　trades　and　professions　by　which　it　is　proposed　they　should　earn　a　livelihood；　and　afterwards　to　settle　in　those　parts　of　the　country　which　they　find　convenient　for　prosecuting　their　several　employments。　By　this　alteration　of　circumstances　they　are　emancipated　from　their　father's　authority。　They　are　put　in　a　condition　to　procure　a　maintainance　without　having　recourse　to　his　bounty；　and　by　their　own　labour　and　industry　are　frequently　possessed　of　opulent　fortunes。　As　they　live　in　separate　families　of　their　own；　of　which　they　have　the　entire　direction；　and　are　placed　at　such　a　distance　from　their　father；　that　he　has　no　longer　an　opportunity　of　observing　and　controlling　their　behaviour；　it　is　natural　to　suppose　that　their　former　habits　will　be　gradually　laid　aside　and　forgotten。　　　　　When　we　examine　the　laws　and　customs　of　polished　nations；　they　appear　to　coincide　with　the　foregoing　remarks；　and　leave　no　room　to　doubt　that；　in　most　countries；　the　paternal　jurisdiction　has　been　reduced　within　narrower　bounds；　in　proportion　to　the　ordinary　improvements　of　society。　　　　　The　Romans；　who　for　several　centuries　were　constantly　employed　in　war；　and　for　that　reason　gave　little　attention　to　the　arts　of　peace；　discovered　more　attachment　to　their　barbarous　usages　than　perhaps　any　other　nation　that　arose　to　wealth　and　splendour；　and　their　ancient　practice；　with　respect　to　the　power　of　the　father；　was　therefore　permitted　to　remain　in　the　most　flourishing　periods　of　their　government。　The　alterations　in　this　particular；　which　were　at　length　found　expedient；　having；　for　the　most　part；　occurred　in　times　of　light　and　knowledge；　are　recorded　with　some　degree　of　accuracy；　and　as　they　mark　the　progress　of　a　great　people　in　an　important　branch　of　policy；　may　deserve　to　be　particularly　considered。　　　　　We　know　nothing　with　certainty　concerning　the　attempts　which；　in　a　very　remote　period；　are　supposed　to　have　been　made　for　restraining　the　exposition　of　infants。　By　a　law　of　Romulus；　parents　are　said　to　have　been　obliged　to　maintain　their　male　children；　and　the　eldest　female；　unless　where　a　child　was；　by　two　of　the　neighbours　called　for　the　purpose；　declared　to　be　a　monster。　A　regulation　of　the　same　nature　is　mentioned　among　the　laws　of　the　twelve　tables　；　but　there　is　ground　to　believe　that　little　regard　was　paid　to　it；　and　even　under　the　emperors；　the　exposing　of　new…born　children；　of　either　sex；　appears　to　have　been　exceedingly　common。　　　　　The　first　effectual　regulations　in　favour　of　children　were　those　which　bestowed　upon　them　a　privilege　of　acquiring　property　independent　of　their　father。　During　the　free　government　of　Rome；　as　war　was　the　chief　employment　in　which　a　Roman　citizen　thought　proper　to　engage；　and　by　which　he　had　any　opportunity　of　gaining　a　fortune；　it　appeared　highly　reasonable；　that　when　he　hazarded　his　person　in　the　service　of　his　country；　he　should　be　allowed　to　reap　the　fruit　of　his　labour；　and　be　entitled　to　the　full　enjoyment　of　whatever　he　had　acquired。　With　this　view；　it　was　enacted　by　Julius　and　by　Augustus　Caesar；　that　whatever　was　gained　by　a　son；　in　the　military　profession；　should　be　considered　as　his　own　estate；　and　that　he　should　be　at　liberty　to　dispose　of　it　at　pleasure。（14*）　　　　　Some　time　after；　when　the　practice　of　the　law　had　also　become　a　lucrative　profession；　it　was　further　established；　that　whatever　a　son　acquired　in　the　exercise　of　this　employment；　should　in　like　manner　become　his　own　property；　and　should　in　no　respect　belong　to　the　father。（15*）　　　　　In　a　later　age；　when　no　employment　was　considered　as　too　mean　for　the　subjects　of　the　Roman　empire；　the　son　became　proprietor　of　what　he　could　procure　by　the　practice　of　the　mechanical　arts；　and　of　whatever　he　obtained　by　donations；　or　by　succession　to　his　mother　or　material　relations；　though　the　usufruct　of　those　acquisitions　was；　in　ordinary　cases；　bestowed　upon　the　father。（16*）　　　　　It　is　uncertain　at　what　time　the　Romans　first　began　to　limit　the　father　in　the　power　of　selling　his　children　for　slaves。　It　appears；　that　before　the　reign　of　the　emperor　Dioclesian　this　privilege　was　entirely　abolished；　except　in　a　singular　case；　in　which　it　remained　to　the　latest　periods　of　the　empire。　To　remove　the　temptation　of　abandoning　newborn　children；　a　permission　was　given　to　sell　them；　but　with　provision　that　they　might；　at　any　time　after；　be　redeemed　from　the　purchaser　；　by　restoring　the　price　which　he　had　paid。　　　　　Exclusive　of　infants；　the　power　over　the　life　of　children　was　first　subjected　to　any　limitation　in　the　reign　of　Trajan；　and　of　Hadrian　his　successor　；　who　interposed；　in　some　particular　cases；　to　punish　the　wanton　exercise　of　paternal　authority　。　In　the　time　of　the　emperor　Severus；　the　father　was　not　allowed　to　put　his　children　to　death　in　private；　but　when　they　committed　a　crime　of　an　atrocious　nature；　was　directed　to　accuse　them　before　a　magistrate；　to　whom　he　was　impowered；　in　that　case；　to　prescribe　the　particular　punishment　which　he　chose　to　have　inflicted。　At　length　this　part　of　his　jurisdiction　was　finally　abolished　by　the　emperor　Constantine；　who　ordained　that　if　a　father　took　away　the　life　of　his　child　he　should　be　deemed　guilty　of　parricide。　　　　　These　were　the　principal　steps　by　which　the　Romans　endeavoured　to　correct　this　remarkable　part　of　their　ancient　law。　It　was　natural　to　begin　with　the　reformation　of　those　particulars　in　which　the　greatest　abuses　were　committed；　and　thence　to　proceed　to　others；　which；　however　absurd　in　appearance；　were　less　severely　felt；　and　less　productive　of　disorder　and　oppression。　It　seldom　happened　that　a　father；　though　permitted　by　law　；　was　so　hardened　to　the　feelings　of　humanity　and　natural　affection；　as　to　be　capable　of　imbruing　his　hands　in　the　blood　of　a　child　whom　he　had　brought　up　in　his　family　；　and　accordingly　no　more　than　three　or　four　instances　of　that　nature　are　mentioned　in　the　whole　Roman　history。　He　might　oftener　be　tempted　to　neglect　his　children　immediately　after　their　birth；　or　be　reconciled　to　the　measure　of　reaping　a　certain　profit　at　the　expense　of　their　freedom。　But　the　part　of　his　prerogative　which　he　would　probably　exert　in　the　most　arbitrary　manner　；　was　that　which　related　to　the　maintenance　of　his　family；　and　the　management　of　that　property　which　had　been　procured　by　their　industry　and　labour。　Thus　we　find　that；　beside　the　early　and　ineffectual　attempts　to　prevent　the　neglect　of　infants；　the　interpositions　of　the　Roman　legislature　were　directed　first　to　secure　the　property；　afterwards　the　liberty；　and　last　of　all　the　life　and　personal　safety　of　the　children。（17*）　　　　　Upon　comparing　the　manners　of　different　countries；　with　regard　to　the　subject　of　our　present　inquiry；　it　will　be　found　that　where　ever　polygamy　is　established；　the　authority　enjoyed　by　the　head　of　every　family　is　usually　carried　to　a　greater　height；　and　is　more　apt　to　remain　in　its　full　force；　notwithstanding　the　improvements　which；　in　other　respects；　the　people　may　have　attained。　By　the　institution　of　polygamy；　the　children　belonging　to　a　person　of　opulent　fortune；　are　commonly　rendered　so　numerous　as　greatly　to　diminish　the　influence　of　paternal　affection：　not　to　mention　that　the　confinement　of　his　wives；　and　the　jealousy；　hatred；　and　dissension；　which　prevail　among　them；　are　productive　of　such　intrigues　to　supplant　or　destroy　one　another；　and　to　promote　the　interest　of　their　respective　children；　that　the　husband；　in　order　to　repress　these　disorders；　finds　it　necessary　to　preserve　a　strict　discipline　in　his　family；　and　to　hold　all　its　members　in　extreme　subjection。　This　will　suggest　a　reason　for　what　is　observed　by　Aristotle；　that　among　the