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第47章

the memorabilia-第47章

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a kingdom was a government over willing men in accordance with civil
law; whereas a tyranny implied the government over unwilling subjects
not according to law; but so as to suit the whims and wishes of the
ruler。

'37' Or; 〃despotism。〃

There were; moreover; three forms of citizenship or polity; in the
case where the magistrates were appointed from those who discharged
the obligations prescribed by law; he held the polity to be an
aristocracy (or rule of the best);'38' where the title to office
depended on rateable property; it was a plutocracy (or rule of
wealth); and lastly; where all the citizens without distinction held
the reins of office; that was a democracy (or rule of the people)。

'38' Or; 〃in which the due discharge of lawful (law…appointed)
    obligations gave the title to magisterial office and government;
    this form of polity he held to be an aristocracy (or rule of the
    best)。〃 See Newman; op。 cit。 i。 212; 235。

Let me explain his method of reply where the disputant had no clear
statement to make; but without attempt at proof chose to contend that
such or such a person named by himself was wiser; or more of a
statesman; or more courageous; and so forth; than some other
person。'39' Socrates had a way of bringing the whole discussion back
to the underlying proposition;'40' as thus:

'39' Or; 〃if any one encountered him in argument about any topic or
    person without any clear statement; but a mere ipse dixit; devoid
    of demonstration; that so and so;〃 etc。

'40' Or; 〃question at bottom。〃 Cf。 Plat。 〃Laws;〃 949 B。

Soc。 You state that so and so; whom you admire; is a better citizen
that this other whom I admire?

The Disputant。 Yes; I repeat the assertion。

Soc。 But would it not have been better to inquire first what is the
work or function of a good citizen?

The Disputant。 Let us do so。

Soc。 To begin; then; with the matter of expenditure: his superiority
will be shown by his increasing the resources and lightening the
expenditure of the state?'41'

'41' Or; 〃In the management of moneys; then; his strength will consist
    in his rendering the state better provided with ways and means?〃

Certainly (the disputant would answer)。

Soc。 And in the event of war; by rendering his state superior to her
antagonists?

The Disputant。 Clearly。

Soc。 Or on an embassy as a diplomatist; I presume; by securing friends
in place of enemies?

That I should imagine (replies the disputant)。

Soc。 Well; and in parliamentary debate; by putting a stop to party
strife and fostering civic concord?

The Disputant。 That is my opinion。

By this method of bringing back the argument to its true starting…
point; even the disputant himself would be affected and the truth
become manifest to his mind。

His ownthat is; the Socraticmethod of conducting a rational
discussion'42' was to proceed step by step from one point of general
agreement to another: 〃Herein lay the real security of reasoning;〃'43'
he would say; and for this reason he was more successful in winning
the common assent of his hearers than any one I ever knew。 He had a
saying that Homer had conferred on Odyesseus the title of a safe;
unerring orator;'44' because he had the gift to lead the discussion
from one commonly accepted opinion to another。

'42' Of; 〃of threading the mazes of an argument。〃

'43' Reading {tauton asphaleian}; aliter。 {tauten ten asphaleian} =
    〃that this security was part and parcel of reasoning。〃

'44' 〃Od。〃 viii。 171; {o d' asphaleos agoreuei}; 〃and his speech runs
    surely on its way〃 (Butcher and Lang); where Odysseus is
    describing himself。 Cf。 Dion。 Hal。 〃de Arte Rhet。〃 xi。 8。


VII

The frankness and simplicity with which Socrates endeavoured to
declare his own opinions; in dealing with those who conversed with
him;'1' is; I think; conclusively proved by the above instances; at
the same time; as I hope now to show; he was no less eager to
cultivate a spirit of independence in others; which would enable them
to stand alone in all transactions suited to their powers。

'1' Or; 〃who frequented his society; is; I hope; clear from what has
    been said。〃

Of all the men I have ever known; he was most anxious to ascertain in
what any of those about him was really versed; and within the range of
his own knowledge he showed the greatest zeal in teaching everything
which it befits the true gentleman'2' to know; or where he was
deficient in knowledge himself;'3' he would introduce his friends to
those who knew。'4' He did not fail to teach them also up to what point
it was proper for an educated man to acquire empiric knowledge of any
particular matter。'5'

'2' Lit。 〃a beautiful and good man。〃

'3' Or; 〃where he lacked acquaintance with the matter himself。〃 See;
    for an instance; 〃Econ。〃 iii。 14。

'4' 〃To those who had the special knowledge〃; 〃a connoisseur in the
    matter。〃

'5' Or; 〃of any particular branch of learning〃; 〃in each department of
    things。〃

To take geometry as an instance: Every one (he would say) ought to be
taught geometry so far; at any rate; as to be able; if necessary; to
take over or part with a piece of land; or to divide it up or assign a
portion of it for cultivation;'6' and in every case by geometric
rule。'7' That amount of geometry was so simple indeed; and easy to
learn; that it only needed ordinary application of the mind to the
method of mensuration; and the student could at once ascertain the
size of the piece of land; and; with the satisfaction of knowing its
measurement; depart in peace。 But he was unable to approve of the
pursuit of geometry up to the point at which it became a study of
unintelligible diagrams。'8' What the use of these might be; he failed;
he said; to see; and yet he was not unversed in these recondite
matters himself。'9' These things; he would say; were enough to wear
out a man's life; and to hinder him from many other more useful
studies。'10'

'6' {e ergon apodeixasthai}; or 〃and to explain the process。〃 Cf。
    Plat。 〃Rep。〃 vii。 528 D。 See R。 Kuhner ad loc。 for other
    interpretations of the phrase。 Cf。 Max。 Tyr。 xxxvii。 7。

'7' Or; 〃by correct measurement〃; lit。 〃by measurement of the earth。〃

'8' Cf。 Aristot。 〃Pol。〃 v。 (viii。) 2; Cic。 〃Acad。 Post。〃 I。 iv。 15。
    For the attitude compare the attitude of a philosopher in other
    respects most unlike SocratesAugust Comte; e。g。 as to the
    futility of sidereal astronomy; 〃Pos。 Pol。〃 i。 412 (Bridges)。

'9' Cf。 Isocr。 〃On the Antidosis;〃 258…269; as to the true place of
    〃Eristic〃 in education。 See above; IV。 ii。 10。

'10' Cf。 A。 Comte as to 〃perte intellectuelle〃 in the pursuit of
    barren studies。

Again; a certain practical knowledge of astronomy; a certain skill in
the study of the stars; he strongly insisted on。 Every one should know
enough of the science to be able to discover the hour of the night or
the season of the month or year; for the purposes of travel by land or
seathe march; the voyage; and the regulations of the watch;'11' and
in general; with regard to all matters connected with the night
season; or with the month; or the year;'12' it was well to have such
reliable data to go upon as would serve to distinguish the various
times and seasons。 But these; again; were pieces of knowledge easily
learnt from night sportsmen;'13' pilots of vessels; and many others
who make it their business to know such things。 As to pushing the
study of astronomy so far as to include a knowledge of the movements
of bodies outside our own orbit; whether planets or stars of eccentric
movement;'14' or wearing oneself out endeavouring to discover their
distances from the earth; their periods; and their causes;'15' all
this he strongly discountenanced; for he saw (he said) no advantage in
these any more than in the former studies。 And yet he was not
unversed'16' in the subtleties of astronomy any more than in those of
geometry; only these; again; he insisted; were sufficient to wear out
a man's lifetime; and to keep him away from many more useful pursuits。

'11' Schneid。 cf。 Plat。 〃Rep。〃 vii。 527 D。

'12' 〃Occurrences connected with the night; the month; or year。〃 e。g。
 

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