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be assigned a value or cost。 The accounting principle that governs profit 
is known as the ‘matching principle’; which means that ine and expenditure 
are matched to the time period in which they occur。 (Look back 
to earlier in the chapter where realization and accruals are explained。)
Table 1。5 Un…audited condensed cash…flow statement for Straight Plc (for the 6 months ended 30 June 2007) 
Half year to 
30 June 2007 
Half year to 
30 June 2006 
Year 
31 Dec 2006 
£’000 £’000 £’000 
Net cash flows from operating activities 2;242 3;879 1;171 
Cash flows from investing activities 
Purchases of property; plant and equipment (603) (464) (701) 
Proceeds from sale of property; plant and equip 345 – – 
Purchase of intangible assets (55) (87) (193) 
Purchase of investments (35) – – 
Interest received 28 58 107 
Net cash used in investing activities (320) (493) (787) 
Cash flows from financing activities 
Dividends paid (310) (283) (422) 
Proceeds from issue of shares 13 – 128 
Net cash used in financing activities (297) (283) (294) 
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents 1;625 3;103 90 
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period 2;126 2;036 2;036 
Cash and cash equivalents at the end of period 3;751 5;139 2;126
30 The Thirty…Day MBA 
So for High Note the profit and loss account for the first six months would 
be as shown in Table 1。6。 
The structure of the profit and loss statement 
This account is set out in more detail for a business in order to make it more 
useful when it es to understanding how a business is performing。 For 
example; although the profit shown in our worked example is £8;700; in 
fact it would be rather lower。 As money has been borrowed to finance cash 
flow there would be interest due; as there would be on the longer…term loan 
of £10;000。 
In practice we have four levels of profit: 
。 Gross profit is the profit le。。 a。。er all costs related to making what you 
sell are deducted from ine。 
。 Operating profit is what’s le。。 a。。er you take away the operating 
expenses from the gross profit。 
。 Profit before tax is what is le。。 a。。er deducting any financing costs。 
。 Profit a。。er tax is what is le。。 for the owners to spend or reinvest in the 
business。 
For High Note this could look much as set out in Table 1。7。 
A more substantial business than High Note will have taken on a wide 
range of mitments。 For example; as well as the owner’s money; there 
may be a long…term loan to be serviced (interest and capital repayments); 
parts of the workshop or offices may be sublet; generating ‘non…operating 
Table 1。6 Profit and loss account for High Note for the six months Apr– 
Sept 
£ £ 
Sales 60;000 
Less cost of goods to be sold 30;000 
Gross profit 30;000 
Less expenses: 
Heat; electric; telephone; internet etc 6;000 
Wages 6;000 
Advertising 9;300 
Total expenses 21;300 
Profit before tax; interest and depreciation charges 8;700
Accounting 31 
ine’; and there will certainly be some depreciation expense to deduct。 
Like any accounting report; it should be prepared in the best form for the 
user; bearing in mind the requirements of the regulatory authorities。 The 
elements to be included are: 
1。 sales (and any other revenues from operations); 
2。 cost of sales (or cost of goods sold); 
3。 gross profit – the difference between sales and cost of sales; 
4。 operating expenses – selling; administration; depreciation and other 
general costs; 
5。 operating profit – the difference between gross profit and operating 
expenses; 
6。 non…operating revenues – other revenues; including interest; rent; etc; 
7。 non…operating expenses – financial costs and other expenses not directly 
related to the running of the business; 
8。 profit before ine tax; 
9。 provision for ine tax;。 
10。 net ine (or profit or loss)。 
Profit and loss spreadsheet 
There is an online spreadsheet at SCORE’s website (score 》 
Business Tools 》 Template Gallery 》 Profit and Loss)。 Download in Excel 
format and you have a profit and loss account with 30 lines of expenses; the 
headings of which you can change or delete to meet your particular needs。 
Table 1。7 High Note extended profit and loss account 
£s 
Sales 60;000 
Less the cost of goods to be sold 30;000 
Gross profit 30;000 
Less operating expenses 21;300 
Operating profit 8;700 
Less interest on bank loan and overdra。。 600 
Profit before tax 8;100 
Less tax 1;827 
Profit a。。er tax 6;723
32 The Thirty…Day MBA 
THE BALANCE SHEET 
A balance sheet is a snapshot picture at a moment in time。 On the one hand 
it shows the value of assets (possessions) owned by the business and; on 
the other; it shows who provided the funds with which to finance those 
assets and to whom the business is ultimately liable。 
Assets are of two main types and are classified under the headings 
of either fixed assets or current assets。 Fixed assets e in three forms。 
First; there are the hardware or physical things used by the business itself 
and which are not for sale to customers。 Examples of fixed assets include 
buildings; plant; machinery; vehicles; furniture and fi。。ings。 Next e 
intangible fixed assets; such as goodwill; intellectual property etc; and these 
are also shown under the general heading ‘fixed assets’。 Finally there are 
investments in other businesses。 Other assets in the process of eventually 
being turned into cash from customers are called current assets; and include 
stocks; work in progress; money owed by customers and cash itself。 
Total assets = Fixed assets + Current assets 
Assets can only be bought with funds provided by the owners or borrowed 
from someone else; for example bankers or creditors。 Owners provide funds 
by directly investing in the business (say; when they buy shares issued by 
the pany) or indirectly by allowing the pany to retain some of 
the profits in reserves。 These sources of money are known collectively as 
liabilities。 
Total liabilities = Share capital and reserves + Borrowings and other creditors 
Borrowed capital can take the form of a long…term loan at a fixed rate of 
interest or a short…term loan; such as a bank overdra。。; usually at a variable 
rate of interest。 All short…term liabilities owed by a business and due for 
payment within 12 months are referred to as creditors falling due within 
one year; and long…term indebtedness is called creditors falling due a。。er 
one year。 
So far in our High Note example; the money spent on ‘capital’ items 
such as the £12;500 spent on a puter and fixtures and fi。。ings have 
been ignored; as has the £9;108 worth of sheet music etc remaining in 
stock waiting to be sold and the £12;000 of money owed by customers who 
have yet to pay up。 An assumption has to be made about where the cash 
deficit will be made up; and the most logical short…term source is a bank 
overdra。。。 
For High Note at the end of September the balance sheet is set out in 
Table 1。8。
Accounting 33 
Balance sheet structure 
The layout of the balance sheet using UK accounting rules is something of 
a jumble; with assets and liabilities intermingled。 In the United States the 
balance sheet is traditionally set out horizontally; with the assets on one 
side and the liabilities on the other。 
Table 1。8 High Note balance sheet at 30 September 
£ £ 
Assets 
Fixed assets 
Fixtures; fi。。ing; equipment 11;500 
puter 1;000 
Total fixed assets 12;500 
Working capital 
Current assets 
Stock 9;108 
Debtors 12;000 
Cash 0 
21;108 
Less current liabilities (creditors falling due 
within one year) 
Overdra。。 4;908 
Due to suppliers 0 
4;908 
Net current assets 
'Working capital (CA…CL)' 16;200 
Total assets less current liabilities 28;700 
Less creditors falling due a。。er one year 
Long…term bank loan 10;000 
Net total assets 18;700 
Capital and reserves 
Owner’s capital introduced 10;000 
Profit retained (from P&L account) 8;700 
Total capital and reserves 18;700
34 The Thirty…Day MBA 
Working capital 
You will also have noticed in this example that the assets and liabilities 
have been jumbled together in the middle to net off the current assets 
and current liabilitie

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