mc.eatersofthedead-第2章

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ehistory。
　Every　Western　schoolchild　is　dutifully　taught　that　the　Near　East　is　〃the　cradle　of　civilization；〃　and　that　the　first　civilizations　arose　in　Egypt　and　Mesopotamia；　nourished　by　the　Nile　and　the　Tigris…Euphrates　river　basins。　From　here　civilization　spread　to　Crete　and　Greece；　and　then　to　Rome；　and　eventually　to　the　barbarians　of　northern　Europe。
　What　these　barbarians　were　doing　while　they　waited　for　the　arrival　of　civilization　was　not　known；　nor　was　the　question　often　raised。　The　emphasis　lay　on　the　process　of　dissemination；　which　the　late　Gordon　Childe　summarized　as　〃the　irradiation　of　European　barbarism　by　Oriental　civilization。〃　Modern　scholars　held　this　view；　as　did　Roman　and　Greek　scholars　before　them。　Geoffrey　Bibby　says：　〃The　history　of　northern　and　eastern　Europe　is　viewed　from　the　West　and　South；　with　all　the　preconceptions　of　men　who　considered　themselves　civilized　looking　upon　men　whom　they　considered　barbarians。〃
　From　this　standpoint；　the　Scandinavians　are　obviously　the　farthest　from　the　source　of　civilization；　and　logically　the　last　to　acquire　it；　and　therefore　they　are　properly　regarded　as　the　last　of　the　barbarians；　a　nagging　thorn　in　the　side　of　those　other　European　areas　trying　to　absorb　the　wisdom　and　civilization　of　the　East。
　The　trouble　is　that　this　traditional　view　of　European　prehistory　has　been　largely　destroyed　in　the　last　fifteen　years。　The　development　of　accurate　carbon…dating　techniques　has　made　a　mess　of　the　old　chronology；　which　supported　the　old　views　of　diffusion。　It　now　appears　indisputable　that　Europeans　were　erecting　huge　megalithic　tombs　before　the　Egyptians　built　the　pyramids；　Stonehenge　is　older　than　the　civilization　of　Mycenaean　Greece；　metallurgy　in　Europe　may　well　precede　the　development　of　metalworking　skills　in　Greece　and　Troy。
　The　meaning　of　these　discoveries　has　not　yet　been　sorted　out；　but　it　is　certainly　now　impossible　to　regard　the　prehistoric　Europeans　as　savages　idly　awaiting　the　blessings　of　Eastern　civilization。　On　the　contrary；　the　Europeans　seem　to　have　had　organizational　skills　considerable　enough　to　work　massive　stones；　and　they　seem　also　to　have　had　impressive　astronomical　knowledge　to　build　Stonehenge；　the　first　observatory　in　the　world。
　Thus；　the　European　bias　toward　the　civilized　East　must　be　called　into　question；　and　indeed　the　very　concept　of　〃European　barbarism〃　requires　a　fresh　look。　With　this　in　mind；　those　barbaric　remnants；　the　Vikings；　take　on　a　new　significance；　and　we　can　reexamine　what　is　known　of　the　Scandinavians　of　the　tenth　century。
　First　we　should　recognize　that　〃the　Vikings　were　never　a　clearly　unified　group。　What　the　Europeans　saw　were　scattered　and　individual　parties　of　seafarers　who　came　from　a　vast　geographical　area…Scandinavia　is　larger　than　Portugal；　Spain；　and　France　bined…and　who　sailed　from　their　individual　feudal　states　for　the　purpose　of　trade　or　piracy　or　both；　the　Vikings　made　little　distinction。　But　that　is　a　tendency　shared　by　many　seafarers　from　the　Greeks　to　the　Elizabethans。
　In　fact；　for　a　people　who　lacked　civilization；　who　〃didn't　feel　the　need　to　look　。。。　beyond　the　next　battle；〃　the　Vikings　demonstrate　remarkably　sustained　and　purposeful　behavior。　As　proof　of　widespread　trading；　Arabic　coins　appear　in　Scandinavia　as　early　as　A。D。　692。　During　the　next　four　hundred　years；　the　Viking　trader…pirates　expanded　as　far　west　as　Newfoundland；　as　far　south　as　Sicily　and　Greece　（where　they　left　carvings　on　the　lions　of　Delos）；　and　as　far　east　as　the　Ural　Mountains　of　Russia；　where　their　traders　linked　up　with　caravans　arriving　from　the　silk　route　to　China。　The　Vikings　were　not　empire　builders；　and　it　is　popular　to　say　that　their　influence　across　this　vast　area　was　impermanent。　Yet　it　was　sufficiently　permanent　to　lend　placenames　to　many　localities　in　England；　while　to　Russia　they　gave　the　very　name　of　the　nation　itself；　from　the　Norse　tribe　Rus。　As　for　the　more　subtle　influence　of　their　pagan　vigor；　relentless　energy；　and　system　of　values；　the　manuscript　of　Ibn　Fadlan　shows　us　how　many　typically　Norse　attitudes　have　been　retained　。　to　the　present　day。　Indeed；　there　is　something　strikingly　familiar　to　the　modern　sensibility　about　the　Viking　way　of　life；　and　something　profoundly　appealing。
　
　ABOUT　THE　AUTHOR

　A　word　should　be　said　about　Ibn　Fadlan；　the　man　who　speaks　to　us　with　such　a　distinctive　voice　despite　the　passage　of　more　than　a　thousand　years　and　the　filter　of　transcribers　and　translators　from　a　dozen　linguistic　and　cultural　traditions。
　We　know　almost　nothing　of　him　personally。　Apparently　he　was　educated　and；　from　his　exploits；　he　could　not　have　been　very　old。　He　states　explicitly　that　he　was　a　familiar　of　the　Caliph；　whom　he　did　not　particularly　admire。　（In　this　he　was　not　alone；　for　the　Caliph　al…Muqtadir　was　twice　deposed　and　finally　slain　by　one　of　his　own　officers。）
　Of　his　society；　we　know　more。　In　the　tenth　century；　Bagdad；　the　City　of　Peace；　was　the　most　civilized　city　on　earth。　More　than　a　million　inhabitants　lived　within　its　famous　circular　walls。　Bagdad　was　the　focus　of　intellectual　and　mercial　excitement；　within　an　environment　of　extraordinary　grace；　elegance；　and　splendor。　There　were　perfumed　gardens；　cool　shady　arbors；　and　the　accumulated　riches　of　a　vast　empire。
　The　Arabs　of　Bagdad　were　Muslim　and　fiercely　dedicated　to　that　religion。　But　they　were　also　exposed　to　peoples　who　looked；　acted；　and　believed　differently　from　them。　The　Arabs　were；　in　fact；　the　least　provincial　people　in　the　world　of　that　time；　and　this　made　them　superb　observers　of　foreign　cultures。
　Ibn　Fadlan　himself　is　clearly　an　intelligent　and　observant　man。　He　is　interested　in　both　the　everyday　details　of　life　and　the　beliefs　of　the　people　he　meets。　Much　that　he　witnessed　struck　him　as　vulgar；　obscene；　and　barbaric；　but　he　wastes　little　time　in　indignation；　once　he　expresses　his　disapproval；　he　goes　right　back　to　his　unblinking　observations。　And　he　reports　what　he　sees　with　remarkably　little　condescension。
　His　manner　of　reporting　may　seem　eccentric　to　Western　sensibilities；　he　does　not　tell　a　story　as　we　are　accustomed　to　hearing　one。　We　tend　to　forget　that　our　own　sense　of　drama　originates　in　an　oral　tradition…a　live　performance　by　a　bard　before　an　audience　that　must　often　have　been　restless　and　impatient；　or　else　sleepy　after　a　heavy　meal。　Our　oldest　stories；　the　Iliad；　Beowulf；　the　Song　of　Roland；　were　all　intended　to　be　sung　by　singers　whose　chief　function　and　first　obligation　was　entertainment。
　But　Ibn　Fadlan　was　a　writer；　and　his　principal　aim　was　not　entertainment。　Nor　was　it　to　glorify　some　listening　patron；　or　to　reinforce　the　myths　of　the　society　in　which　he　lived。　On　the　contrary；　he　was　an　ambassador　delivering　a　report；　his　tone　is　that　of　a　tax　auditor；　not　a　bard；　an　anthropologist；　not　a　dramatist。　Indeed；　he　often　slights　the　most　exciting　elements　of　his　narrative　rather　than　let　them　interfere　with　his　clear　and　level…headed　account。
　At　times　this　dispassion　is　so　irritating　we　fail　to　recognize　how　extraordinary　a　spectator　he　really　is。　For　hundreds　of　years　after　Ibn　Fadlan；　the　tradition　among　travelers　was　to　write　wildly　speculative；　fanciful　chronicles　of　foreign　marvels…talking　animals；　feathered　men　who　flew；　encounters　with　behemoths　and　unicorns。　As　recently　as　two　hundred　years　ago；　otherwise　sober　Europeans　were　filling　their　journals　with　nonsense　about　African　baboons　that　waged　war　with　farmers；　and　so　on。
　Ibn　Fadlan　never　speculates。　Every　word　rings　true；　and　whenever　he　reports　by　hearsay；　he　is　careful　to　say　so。　He　is　equally　careful　to　specify　when　he　is　an　eyewitness：　that　is　why　he　uses　the　phrase　〃I　saw　with　my　own　eyes〃　over　and　over。
　In　the　end；　it　is　this　quality　of　absolute　truthfulness　which　makes　his　tale　so　horrifying。　For　his　encounter　with　the　monsters　of　the　mist；　the　〃eaters　of　the　dead；〃　is　told　with　the　same　attention　to　detail；　the　same　careful　skepticism；　that　marks　the　other　portions　of　the　manuscript。
　In　any　case；　the　reader　may　judge　for　himself。
　
　THE　DEPARTURE　FROM　THE　CITY　OF　PEACE

　PRAISE　BE　TO　GOD；　THE　MERCIFUL；　THE　passionate；　the　Lord　of　the　Two　Worlds；　and　blessing　and　peace　upon　the　Prince　of　Prophets；　our　Lord　and　M